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			<div class="pre-content heading-holder"><ul id="page-actions" class="hlist "><li id="ca-edit" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit" title="Edit the lead section of this page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tropical_cyclone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=0">Edit this page</a></li><li id="ca-watch" class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element watch-this-article"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Tropical+cyclone" title="Add this page to your watchlist [w]" accesskey="w"></a></li><li class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-language-switcher language-selector" title="Read in another language"><a href="/wiki/Special:MobileLanguages/Tropical_cyclone">Read in another language</a></li></ul><h1 id="section_0">Tropical cyclone</h1><div class="tagline"></div><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">  (Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hurricane&amp;redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane">Hurricane</a>)</span></div><div id="bodyContent" class="content"><div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Hurricane" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Hurricane (disambiguation)">Hurricane (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hurricane_Isabel_from_ISS.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Hurricane_Isabel_from_ISS.jpg/300px-Hurricane_Isabel_from_ISS.jpg" width="300" height="199" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2007"></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Isabel" title="Hurricane Isabel">Hurricane Isabel</a> (2003) as seen from orbit during <a href="/wiki/Expedition_7" title="Expedition 7">Expedition 7</a> of the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">eye</a>, eyewall, and surrounding <a href="/wiki/Rainband" title="Rainband">rainbands</a>, characteristics of tropical <a href="/wiki/Cyclones" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclones">cyclones</a> in the narrow sense, are clearly visible in this view from space.</div>
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<p>A <b>tropical cyclone</b> is a rapidly rotating <a href="/wiki/Storm" title="Storm">storm system</a> characterized by a <a href="/wiki/Low-pressure_area" title="Low-pressure area">low-pressure</a> center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, <a href="/wiki/Beaufort_scale" title="Beaufort scale">strong winds</a>, and a spiral arrangement of <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorms</a> that produce heavy rain. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by different names, including <a href="#Hurricane_or_typhoon">hurricane</a> (<span class="nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'h' in 'hi'">h</span><span title="/ʌr/: 'urr' in 'hurry'">ʌr</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ən/: 'on' in 'button'">ən</span></span>, -<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span>),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone#Hurricane_or_typhoon" title="Tropical cyclone">typhoon</a> (<span class="nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span>), <a href="#Tropical_storm">tropical storm</a>, cyclonic storm, <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone#Tropical_depression" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical depression</a>, and simply cyclone.<sup id="cite_ref-HCT_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCT-4">[4]</a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane" title="Atlantic hurricane">hurricane</a> is a tropical cyclone that occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> and northeastern <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">typhoon</a> occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean; while in the south Pacific or <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, comparable storms are referred to simply as “tropical cyclones” or “severe cyclonic storms”.<sup id="cite_ref-HCT_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCT-4">[4]</a></sup></p>
<p>“Tropical” refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropical</a> seas. “Cyclone” refers to their winds moving in a circle,<sup id="cite_ref-OED_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OED-5">[5]</a></sup> whirling round their central clear <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">eye</a>, with their winds blowing <a href="/wiki/Clockwise_and_counterclockwise" class="mw-redirect" title="Clockwise and counterclockwise">counterclockwise</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a> and blowing clockwise in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a>. The opposite direction of circulation is due to the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis effect">Coriolis effect</a>. Tropical cyclones <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclogenesis" title="Tropical cyclogenesis">typically form</a> over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a> surface, which ultimately <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">recondenses</a> into <a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">clouds</a> and rain when moist air rises and cools to <a href="/wiki/Saturated_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturated fluid">saturation</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Energy_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy source">energy source</a> differs from that of <a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">mid-latitude cyclonic storms</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Nor%27easter" title="Nor'easter">nor'easters</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_windstorm" title="European windstorm">European windstorms</a>, which are fueled primarily by <a href="/wiki/Baroclinic_instability" class="mw-redirect" title="Baroclinic instability">horizontal temperature contrasts</a>. Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km (62 and 1,243 mi) in diameter.</p>
<p>The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_angular_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of angular momentum">conservation of angular momentum</a> imparted by the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">rotation</a> as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, they rarely form within 5° of the equator.<sup id="cite_ref-BAMS_Zhang_1988_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BAMS_Zhang_1988-6">[6]</a></sup> Tropical cyclones are also almost completely absent from Earth’s southwestern quartersphere, mainly because the shapes of the African and South American continents permit the <a href="/wiki/Benguela_Current" title="Benguela Current">Benguela</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Currents</a> to cover ocean basins as far north as 5˚N with excessively cool water. These powerful cold currents also produce much stronger <a href="/wiki/Vertical_wind_shear" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertical wind shear">vertical wind shear</a> in the South Atlantic and Southeast Pacific, which typically prevent tropical depressions and minor storms there from developing into cyclones and prevent even the waters of the <a href="/wiki/Brazil_Current" title="Brazil Current">Brazil Current</a> from being so hot as analogous western boundary currents or ocean gyres. Also, the <a href="/wiki/African_easterly_jet" title="African easterly jet">African easterly jet</a> and areas of atmospheric instability which gives rise to cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, along with <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_of_South_Asia" title="Monsoon of South Asia">the Asian monsoon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Pacific_Warm_Pool" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Pacific Warm Pool">Western Pacific Warm Pool</a>, are feature of the Northern Hemisphere and Australia.</p>
<p>Coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to the impact of a tropical cyclone, compared to inland regions. The primary energy source for these storms is warm ocean waters, therefore these forms are typically strongest when over or near water, and weaken quite rapidly over land. Coastal damage may be caused by strong winds and rain, high waves (due to winds), <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surges</a> (due to severe pressure changes), and <a href="/wiki/Tornadogenesis" title="Tornadogenesis">the potential</a> of spawning <a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornadoes</a>. Tropical cyclones also draw in air from a large area—which can be a vast area for the most severe cyclones—and concentrate the <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> of the water content in that air (made up from atmospheric moisture and moisture evaporated from water) into a much smaller area. This continual replacement of moisture-bearing air by new moisture-bearing air after its moisture has fallen as rain, may cause extremely heavy rain and river flooding up to 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the coastline, far beyond the amount of water that the local atmosphere holds at any one time.</p>
<p>Though their effects on human populations are often devastating, tropical cyclones can relieve <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a> conditions. They also carry heat energy away from the tropics and transport it toward <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudes</a>, which may play an important role in modulating regional and global <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>.</p>
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<div id="toc" class="toc-mobile"><h2>Contents</h2></div></div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(1)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Physical_structure">Physical structure</span></h2><div class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1">
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">Eye (cyclone)</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:292px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hurricane-en.svg" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Hurricane-en.svg/290px-Hurricane-en.svg.png" width="290" height="127" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1173" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 127px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Hurricane-en.svg/290px-Hurricane-en.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="290" data-height="127" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Hurricane-en.svg/435px-Hurricane-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Hurricane-en.svg/580px-Hurricane-en.svg.png 2x" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Hurricane-en.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Diagram of a Northern hemisphere hurricane</div>
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<p>Tropical cyclones are areas of relatively <a href="/wiki/Low-pressure_area" title="Low-pressure area">low pressure</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a>, with the largest pressure perturbations occurring at low altitudes near the surface. On Earth, the pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the lowest ever observed at <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ABC_pressures_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABC_pressures-7">[7]</a></sup> The environment near the center of tropical cyclones is warmer than the surroundings at all altitudes, thus they are characterized as “warm core” systems.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A7_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A7-8">[8]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Wind_field">Wind field</span></h3>
<p>The near-surface wind field of a tropical cyclone is characterized by air rotating rapidly around a <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">center of circulation</a> while also flowing radially inwards. At the outer edge of the storm, air may be nearly calm; however, due to the Earth’s rotation, the air has non-zero <a href="/wiki/Absolute_angular_momentum" title="Absolute angular momentum">absolute angular momentum</a>. As air flows radially inward, it begins to <a href="/wiki/Cyclonic_rotation" title="Cyclonic rotation">rotate cyclonically</a> (counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere) in order to <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_angular_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of angular momentum">conserve angular momentum</a>. At an inner radius, air begins to ascend to the <a href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">top of the troposphere</a>. This radius is typically coincident with the inner radius of the <a href="/wiki/Eyewall" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyewall">eyewall</a>, and has the strongest near-surface winds of the storm; consequently, it is known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Radius_of_maximum_wind" title="Radius of maximum wind">radius of maximum winds</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-NHC_glossary_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHC_glossary-9">[9]</a></sup> Once aloft, air flows away from the storm's center, producing a shield of <a href="/wiki/Cirrus_cloud" title="Cirrus cloud">cirrus clouds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cirrus_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cirrus-10">[10]</a></sup></p>
<p>The previously mentioned processes result in a wind field that is nearly <a href="/wiki/Axisymmetric" class="mw-redirect" title="Axisymmetric">axisymmetric</a>: Wind speeds are low at the center, increase rapidly moving outwards to the radius of maximum winds, and then decay more gradually with radius to large radii. However, the wind field often exhibits additional spatial and temporal variability due to the effects of localized processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">thunderstorm activity</a> and horizontal <a href="/wiki/Instability#Fluid_instabilities" title="Instability">flow instabilities</a>. In the vertical direction, winds are strongest near the surface and decay with height within the troposphere.<sup id="cite_ref-MWR_Frank_1977_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MWR_Frank_1977-11">[11]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Eye_and_center">Eye and center</span></h3>
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NASA animation of Hurricane Arthur in 2014 showing rain rates and internal structure from <a href="/wiki/Global_Precipitation_Measurement" title="Global Precipitation Measurement">GPM</a> satellite data</div>
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<p>At the center of a mature tropical cyclone, air sinks rather than rises. For a sufficiently strong storm, air may sink over a layer deep enough to suppress cloud formation, thereby creating a clear “<a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">eye</a>”. Weather in the eye is normally calm and free of clouds, although the sea may be extremely violent.<sup id="cite_ref-JetStream_structure_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JetStream_structure-12">[12]</a></sup> The eye is normally circular in shape, and is typically 30–65 km (19–40 mi) in diameter, though eyes as small as 3 km (1.9 mi) and as large as 370 km (230 mi) have been observed.<sup id="cite_ref-WilmaTCR_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilmaTCR-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MWR_1996_AHS_summary_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MWR_1996_AHS_summary-14">[14]</a></sup></p>
<p>The cloudy outer edge of the eye is called the “<a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">eyewall</a>”. The eyewall typically expands outward with height, resembling an arena football stadium; this phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the <i><a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)#Stadium_effect" title="Eye (cyclone)">stadium effect</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-MWR_1996_AHS_summary_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MWR_1996_AHS_summary-14">[14]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Eyewall" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyewall">eyewall</a> is where the greatest wind speeds are found, air rises most rapidly, clouds reach to their highest altitude, and precipitation is the heaviest. The heaviest wind damage occurs where a tropical cyclone's eyewall passes over land.<sup id="cite_ref-JetStream_structure_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JetStream_structure-12">[12]</a></sup></p>
<p>In a weaker storm, the eye may be obscured by the <a href="/wiki/Central_dense_overcast" title="Central dense overcast">central dense overcast</a>, which is the upper-level cirrus shield that is associated with a concentrated area of strong thunderstorm activity near the center of a tropical cyclone.<sup id="cite_ref-CDO_AMS_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDO_AMS-15">[15]</a></sup></p>
<p>The eyewall may vary over time in the form of <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)#Eyewall_replacement_cycles" title="Eye (cyclone)">eyewall replacement cycles</a>, particularly in intense tropical cyclones. <a href="/wiki/Rainbands" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainbands">Outer rainbands</a> can organize into an outer ring of thunderstorms that slowly moves inward, which is believed to rob the primary eyewall of moisture and <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a>. When the primary eyewall weakens, the tropical cyclone weakens temporarily. The outer eyewall eventually replaces the primary one at the end of the cycle, at which time the storm may return to its original intensity.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_D8_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_D8-16">[16]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Rapid_deepening">Rapid deepening</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Typhooon_Nabi_as_seen_from_the_ISS.jpg" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Typhooon_Nabi_as_seen_from_the_ISS.jpg/220px-Typhooon_Nabi_as_seen_from_the_ISS.jpg" width="220" height="133" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2864" data-file-height="1728"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 133px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Typhooon_Nabi_as_seen_from_the_ISS.jpg/220px-Typhooon_Nabi_as_seen_from_the_ISS.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="220" data-height="133" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Typhoon_Nabi" title="Typhoon Nabi">Typhoon Nabi</a> as seen from the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>, on September 3, 2005.</div>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rapid_deepening" class="mw-redirect" title="Rapid deepening">Rapid deepening</a></div>
<p>On occasion, tropical cyclones may undergo a process known as rapid deepening, a period in which the minimum sea-level pressure of a tropical cyclone decreases by 42mb in a 24-hour period.<sup id="cite_ref-NWS_Glossary_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NWS_Glossary-17">[17]</a></sup> In order for rapid deepening to occur, several conditions must be in place. <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Water temperatures</a> must be extremely high (near or above 30 °C, 86 °F), and water of this temperature must be sufficiently deep such that waves do not upwell cooler waters to the surface. <a href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">Wind shear</a> must be low; when wind shear is high, the <a href="/wiki/Convection#Atmospheric_convection" title="Convection">convection</a> and circulation in the cyclone will be disrupted. Usually, an <a href="/wiki/Anticyclone" title="Anticyclone">anticyclone</a> in the upper layers of the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a> above the storm must be present as well—for extremely low surface pressures to develop, air must be rising very rapidly in the <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">eyewall</a> of the storm, and an upper-level anticyclone helps channel this air away from the cyclone efficiently.<sup id="cite_ref-Energetics_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Energetics-18">[18]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Size">Size</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable" style="float: right; font-size: 92%; margin: 1em 0 1em 1em;"><tr><th colspan="2" style="background: #ccf;">Size descriptions of tropical cyclones</th>
</tr><tr><th>ROCI (Diameter)</th>
<th>Type</th>
</tr><tr><td>Less than 2 degrees latitude</td>
<td>Very small/midget</td>
</tr><tr><td>2 to 3 degrees of latitude</td>
<td>Small</td>
</tr><tr><td>3 to 6 degrees of latitude</td>
<td>Medium/Average</td>
</tr><tr><td>6 to 8 degrees of latitude</td>
<td>Large</td>
</tr><tr><td>Over 8 degrees of latitude</td>
<td>Very large<sup id="cite_ref-JTWCsize_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JTWCsize-19">[19]</a></sup></td>
</tr></table><p>There are a variety of metrics commonly used to measure storm size. The most common metrics include the radius of maximum wind, the radius of 34-knot wind (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Gale" title="Gale">gale force</a>), the radius of outermost closed <a href="/wiki/Isobar_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isobar (meteorology)">isobar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Radius_of_outermost_closed_isobar" title="Radius of outermost closed isobar">ROCI</a>), and the radius of vanishing wind.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chavas_Emanuel_GRL_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chavas_Emanuel_GRL-21">[21]</a></sup> An additional metric is the radius at which the cyclone's relative <a href="/wiki/Vorticity" title="Vorticity">vorticity</a> field decreases to 1×10<sup>−5</sup> s<sup>−1</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-MWR_1996_AHS_summary_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MWR_1996_AHS_summary-14">[14]</a></sup></p>
<p>On Earth, tropical cyclones span a large range of sizes, from 100–2,000 kilometres (62–1,243 mi) as measured by the radius of vanishing wind. They are largest on average in the northwest Pacific Ocean basin and smallest in the northeastern Pacific Ocean basin.<sup id="cite_ref-Merrill_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merrill-22">[22]</a></sup> If the radius of outermost closed isobar is less than two <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">degrees of latitude</a> (222 km (138 mi)), then the cyclone is "very small" or a "midget". A radius of 3–6 latitude degrees (333–670 km (207–416 mi)) is considered "average sized". "Very large" tropical cyclones have a radius of greater than 8 degrees (888 km (552 mi)).<sup id="cite_ref-JTWCsize_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JTWCsize-19">[19]</a></sup> Observations indicate that size is only weakly correlated to variables such as storm intensity (i.e. maximum wind speed), radius of maximum wind, latitude, and maximum potential intensity.<sup id="cite_ref-Chavas_Emanuel_GRL_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chavas_Emanuel_GRL-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Merrill_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merrill-22">[22]</a></sup></p>
<p>Size plays an important role in modulating damage caused by a storm. All else equal, a larger storm will impact a larger area for a longer period of time. Additionally, a larger near-surface wind field can generate higher <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surge</a> due to the combination of longer wind <a href="/wiki/Fetch_(geography)" title="Fetch (geography)">fetch</a>, longer duration, and enhanced <a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">wave setup</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Irish_et_al_JPO_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Irish_et_al_JPO-23">[23]</a></sup></p>
<p>The upper circulation of strong hurricanes extends into the <a href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">tropopause</a> of the atmosphere, which at low latitudes is 15,000–18,000 metres (50,000–60,000 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-Waco_1970_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waco_1970-24">[24]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(2)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Physics_and_energetics">Physics and energetics</span></h2><div class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2">
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Tropical cyclones exhibit an overturning circulation where air inflows at low levels near the surface, rises in thunderstorm clouds, and outflows at high levels near the tropopause.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></div>
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<p>The <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-dimensional">three-dimensional</a> wind field in a tropical cyclone can be separated into two components: a "primary circulation" and a "<a href="/wiki/Secondary_circulation" title="Secondary circulation">secondary circulation</a>". The primary circulation is the rotational part of the flow; it is purely circular. The secondary circulation is the overturning (in-up-out-down) part of the flow; it is in the <a href="/wiki/Geometric_terms_of_location" title="Geometric terms of location">radial</a> and vertical directions. The primary circulation is larger in magnitude, dominating the surface wind field, and is responsible for the majority of the damage a storm causes, while the secondary circulation is slower but governs the <a href="/wiki/Energetics" title="Energetics">energetics</a> of the storm.</p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Secondary_circulation:_a_Carnot_heat_engine">Secondary circulation: a Carnot heat engine</span></h3>
<p>A tropical cyclone's primary energy source is heat from the evaporation of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a> surface, which ultimately <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">recondenses</a> into clouds and rain when the warm moist air rises and cools to <a href="/wiki/Saturated_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturated fluid">saturation</a>. The energetics of the system may be idealized as an atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Carnot_heat_engine" title="Carnot heat engine">Carnot heat engine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JAS_Emanuel_1986_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JAS_Emanuel_1986-26">[26]</a></sup> First, inflowing air near the surface acquires heat primarily via evaporation of water (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a>) at the temperature of the warm ocean surface (during evaporation, the ocean cools and the air warms). Second, the warmed air rises and cools within the eyewall while conserving total heat content (latent heat is simply converted to <a href="/wiki/Sensible_heat" title="Sensible heat">sensible heat</a> during <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condensation</a>). Third, air outflows and loses heat via <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">infrared radiation</a> to space at the temperature of the cold <a href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">tropopause</a>. Finally, air <a href="/wiki/Subsidence_(atmosphere)" title="Subsidence (atmosphere)">subsides</a> and warms at the outer edge of the storm while conserving total heat content. The first and third legs are nearly <a href="/wiki/Isothermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Isothermal">isothermal</a>, while the second and fourth legs are nearly <a href="/wiki/Isentropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Isentropic">isentropic</a>. This in-up-out-down overturning flow is known as the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_flow" title="Secondary flow">secondary circulation</a>. The Carnot perspective provides an <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone#Maximum_potential_intensity" title="Tropical cyclone">upper bound</a> on the maximum wind speed that a storm can attain.</p>
<p>Scientists estimate that a tropical cyclone releases heat energy at the rate of 50 to 200 <a href="/wiki/Exajoule" class="mw-redirect" title="Exajoule">exajoules</a> (10<sup>18</sup> J) per day,<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_Question_of_the_Month_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA_Question_of_the_Month-27">[27]</a></sup> equivalent to about 1 PW (10<sup>15</sup> watt). This rate of energy release is equivalent to 70 times the <a href="/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="World energy resources and consumption">world energy consumption</a> of humans and 200 times the worldwide electrical generating capacity, or to exploding a 10-<a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">megaton</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear bomb">nuclear bomb</a> every 20 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_Question_of_the_Month_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA_Question_of_the_Month-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UCAR_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCAR-28">[28]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Primary_circulation:_rotating_winds">Primary circulation: rotating winds</span></h3>
<p>The primary rotating flow in a tropical cyclone results from the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_angular_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of angular momentum">conservation of angular momentum</a> by the secondary circulation. <a href="/wiki/Absolute_angular_momentum" title="Absolute angular momentum">Absolute angular momentum</a> on a rotating planet <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>M</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="M"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.442ex;height: 2.176ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" data-alt="M" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is given by</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M={\frac {1}{2}}fr^{2}+vr}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>M</mi>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mfrac>
            <mn>1</mn>
            <mn>2</mn>
          </mfrac>
        </mrow>
        <mi>f</mi>
        <msup>
          <mi>r</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mn>2</mn>
          </mrow>
        </msup>
        <mo>+</mo>
        <mi>v</mi>
        <mi>r</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M={\frac {1}{2}}fr^{2}+vr}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e745754a2255a0214ba8f79b212758289099d639" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:15.937ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="M = \frac{1}{2}fr^2 + vr"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 15.937ex;height: 5.176ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e745754a2255a0214ba8f79b212758289099d639" data-alt="M = \frac{1}{2}fr^2 + vr" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span></dd>
</dl><p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>f</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="f"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.279ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61" data-alt="f" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_parameter" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis parameter">Coriolis parameter</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>v</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.128ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="v"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.128ex;height: 1.676ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" data-alt="v" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the azimuthal (i.e. rotating) wind speed, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>r</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="r"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.049ex;height: 1.676ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538" data-alt="r" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the radius to the axis of rotation. The first term on the right hand side is the component of planetary angular momentum that projects onto the local vertical (i.e. the axis of rotation). The second term on the right hand side is the relative angular momentum of the circulation itself with respect to the axis of rotation. Because the planetary angular momentum term vanishes at the equator (where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f=0}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>f</mi>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <mn>0</mn>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f=0}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1ee0fdf0f50fcba5afe3e856fcc7dc6acfa61014" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.54ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="f=0"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 5.54ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1ee0fdf0f50fcba5afe3e856fcc7dc6acfa61014" data-alt="f=0" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> ), tropical cyclones rarely <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone#Formation" title="Tropical cyclone">form</a> within 5° of the equator.<sup id="cite_ref-BAMS_Zhang_1988_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BAMS_Zhang_1988-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup></p>
<p>As air flows radially inward at low levels, it begins to rotate cyclonically in order to conserve angular momentum. Similarly, as rapidly rotating air flows radially outward near the tropopause, its cyclonic rotation decreases and ultimately changes sign at large enough radius, resulting in an upper-level <a href="/wiki/Anti-cyclone" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-cyclone">anti-cyclone</a>. The result is a vertical structure characterized by a strong <a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">cyclone</a> at low levels and a strong <a href="/wiki/Anti-cyclone" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-cyclone">anti-cyclone</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">tropopause</a>; from <a href="/wiki/Thermal_wind" title="Thermal wind">thermal wind balance</a>, this corresponds to a system that is warmer at its center than in the surrounding environment at all altitudes (i.e. “warm-core”). From <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic balance">hydrostatic balance</a>, the warm core translates to lower pressure at the center at all altitudes, with the maximum pressure drop located at the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-MWR_Frank_1977_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MWR_Frank_1977-11">[11]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Maximum_potential_intensity">Maximum potential intensity</span></h3>
<p>Due to surface friction, the inflow only partially conserves angular momentum. Thus, the sea surface lower boundary acts as both a source (evaporation) and sink (friction) of energy for the system. This fact leads to the existence of a theoretical upper bound on the strongest wind speed that a tropical cyclone can attain. Because evaporation increases linearly with wind speed (just as climbing out of a pool feels much colder on a windy day), there is a positive feedback on energy input into the system known as the Wind-Induced Surface Heat Exchange (WISHE) feedback.<sup id="cite_ref-JAS_Emanuel_1986_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JAS_Emanuel_1986-26">[26]</a></sup> This feedback is offset when frictional dissipation, which increases with the cube of the wind speed, becomes sufficiently large. This upper bound is called the “maximum potential intensity”, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{p}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>v</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>p</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{p}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/537e72b1a70774ae976de89f7919dc0e0a9bb86d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.187ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="v_p"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.187ex;height: 2.343ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/537e72b1a70774ae976de89f7919dc0e0a9bb86d" data-alt="v_p" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span>, and is given by</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{p}^{2}={\frac {C_{k}}{C_{d}}}{\frac {T_{s}-T_{o}}{T_{o}}}\Delta k}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msubsup>
          <mi>v</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>p</mi>
          </mrow>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mn>2</mn>
          </mrow>
        </msubsup>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mfrac>
            <msub>
              <mi>C</mi>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mi>k</mi>
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            </msub>
            <msub>
              <mi>C</mi>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mi>d</mi>
              </mrow>
            </msub>
          </mfrac>
        </mrow>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mfrac>
            <mrow>
              <msub>
                <mi>T</mi>
                <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                  <mi>s</mi>
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              </msub>
              <mo>−</mo>
              <msub>
                <mi>T</mi>
                <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                  <mi>o</mi>
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              </msub>
            </mrow>
            <msub>
              <mi>T</mi>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mi>o</mi>
              </mrow>
            </msub>
          </mfrac>
        </mrow>
        <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi>
        <mi>k</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{p}^{2}={\frac {C_{k}}{C_{d}}}{\frac {T_{s}-T_{o}}{T_{o}}}\Delta k}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a7fb2f6e26d612beb99143358c734c6970bdf8d4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:20.447ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="v_p^2 = \frac{C_k}{C_d}\frac{T_s - T_o}{T_o}\Delta k"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 20.447ex;height: 5.843ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a7fb2f6e26d612beb99143358c734c6970bdf8d4" data-alt="v_p^2 = \frac{C_k}{C_d}\frac{T_s - T_o}{T_o}\Delta k" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span></dd>
</dl><p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{s}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>T</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>s</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{s}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/942b5ac7697c72b9e3bc1e3b340daf7189fdf61f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.361ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="T_{s}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.361ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/942b5ac7697c72b9e3bc1e3b340daf7189fdf61f" data-alt="T_{s}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the temperature of the sea surface, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{o}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>T</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>o</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{o}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2991f18ef81fec2f94e3a532df91a079f3f6697d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.387ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="T_{o}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.387ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2991f18ef81fec2f94e3a532df91a079f3f6697d" data-alt="T_{o}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the temperature of the outflow ([K]), <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta k}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi>
        <mi>k</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta k}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3f4119f8a26ff6ff37ca2d302fc36bf91334ec5c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.147ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="\Delta k"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 3.147ex;height: 2.176ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3f4119f8a26ff6ff37ca2d302fc36bf91334ec5c" data-alt="\Delta k" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the enthalpy difference between the surface and the overlying air ([J/kg]), and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{k}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>C</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>k</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{k}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1a0887b56787ba96e79de2b9f5c6ff30aabad1c6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.751ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="C_{k}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.751ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1a0887b56787ba96e79de2b9f5c6ff30aabad1c6" data-alt="C_{k}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{d}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>C</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>d</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{d}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d638b409d293db1874a1503bd0f87d20b3d57ed7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.754ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="C_{d}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.754ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d638b409d293db1874a1503bd0f87d20b3d57ed7" data-alt="C_{d}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> are the surface <a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer_coefficient" title="Heat transfer coefficient">exchange coefficients</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dimensionless" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimensionless">dimensionless</a>) of enthalpy and momentum, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Bister_Emanuel_1998_MAP_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bister_Emanuel_1998_MAP-30">[30]</a></sup> The surface-air enthalpy difference is taken as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta k=k_{s}^{*}-k}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi>
        <mi>k</mi>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <msubsup>
          <mi>k</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>s</mi>
          </mrow>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mo>∗</mo>
          </mrow>
        </msubsup>
        <mo>−</mo>
        <mi>k</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta k=k_{s}^{*}-k}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9089989e80b0a50c6c382db270b231c5ed25b91b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:12.563ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="\Delta k = k^*_s-k"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 12.563ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9089989e80b0a50c6c382db270b231c5ed25b91b" data-alt="\Delta k = k^*_s-k" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span>, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k_{s}^{*}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msubsup>
          <mi>k</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>s</mi>
          </mrow>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mo>∗</mo>
          </mrow>
        </msubsup>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k_{s}^{*}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7532aba5f600a7c3241dfe638f5874a41ce40ed5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.265ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="k^*_s"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.265ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7532aba5f600a7c3241dfe638f5874a41ce40ed5" data-alt="k^*_s" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the saturation <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a> of air at sea surface temperature and sea-level pressure and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>k</mi>
      </mstyle>
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="k"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.211ex;height: 2.176ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40" data-alt="k" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the enthalpy of boundary layer air overlying the surface.</p>
<p>The maximum potential intensity is predominantly a function of the background environment alone (i.e. without a tropical cyclone), and thus this quantity can be used to determine which regions on Earth can support tropical cyclones of a given intensity, and how these regions may evolve in time.<sup id="cite_ref-Emanuel_2000_MWR_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emanuel_2000_MWR-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Knutson_etal_2010_NG_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knutson_etal_2010_NG-32">[32]</a></sup> Specifically, the maximum potential intensity has three components, but its <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone#Characteristic_values_and_variability_on_Earth" title="Tropical cyclone">variability in space and time</a> is due predominantly to the variability in the surface-air enthalpy difference component <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta k}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi>
        <mi>k</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta k}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3f4119f8a26ff6ff37ca2d302fc36bf91334ec5c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.147ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="\Delta k"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 3.147ex;height: 2.176ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3f4119f8a26ff6ff37ca2d302fc36bf91334ec5c" data-alt="\Delta k" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span>.</p>
<h4 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Derivation">Derivation</span></h4>
<p>A tropical cyclone may be viewed as a <a href="/wiki/Heat_engine" title="Heat engine">heat engine</a> that converts input <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a> energy from the surface into <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_energy" title="Mechanical energy">mechanical energy</a> that can be used to do <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical work">mechanical work</a> against surface friction. At equilibrium, the rate of net energy production in the system must equal the rate of energy loss due to frictional dissipation at the surface, i.e.</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W_{in}=W_{out}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>W</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <msub>
          <mi>W</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>o</mi>
            <mi>u</mi>
            <mi>t</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W_{in}=W_{out}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c6f53455e8968a96b21c527503bcdbd7366eea31" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.835ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="W_{in} = W_{out}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 11.835ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c6f53455e8968a96b21c527503bcdbd7366eea31" data-alt="W_{in} = W_{out}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span></dd>
</dl><p>The rate of energy loss per unit surface area from surface friction, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W_{out}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>W</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>o</mi>
            <mi>u</mi>
            <mi>t</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W_{out}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0b268f9b2a16d3e3e32de585eb140111f92f71fc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.757ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="W_{out}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 4.757ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0b268f9b2a16d3e3e32de585eb140111f92f71fc" data-alt="W_{out}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span>, is given by</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W_{out}=C_{d}\rho |\mathbf {u} |^{3}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>W</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>o</mi>
            <mi>u</mi>
            <mi>t</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <msub>
          <mi>C</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>d</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mi>ρ</mi>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
        </mrow>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi>
        </mrow>
        <msup>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
          </mrow>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mn>3</mn>
          </mrow>
        </msup>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W_{out}=C_{d}\rho |\mathbf {u} |^{3}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dbd3241dd960eee8b8992758ac5ea5a38b0b1015" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.645ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="W_{out} = C_d \rho |\mathbf{u}|^3"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 15.645ex;height: 3.343ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dbd3241dd960eee8b8992758ac5ea5a38b0b1015" data-alt="W_{out} = C_d \rho |\mathbf{u}|^3" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span></dd>
</dl><p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>ρ</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="\rho "></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.202ex;height: 2.176ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" data-alt="\rho " data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the density of near-surface air ([kg/m<sup>3</sup>]) and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\mathbf {u} |}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
        </mrow>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi>
        </mrow>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
        </mrow>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\mathbf {u} |}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/46a5525a5c8a36ca867220e6bba3938afd0872d2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.779ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="|\mathbf{u}|"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.779ex;height: 2.843ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/46a5525a5c8a36ca867220e6bba3938afd0872d2" data-alt="|\mathbf{u}|" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the near surface wind speed ([m/s]).</p>
<p>The rate of energy production per unit surface area, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W_{in}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>W</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W_{in}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8536dfcf0c76b87884d1a6e1e798e40c8c8916f7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.98ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="W_{in}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 3.98ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8536dfcf0c76b87884d1a6e1e798e40c8c8916f7" data-alt="W_{in}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is given by</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W_{in}=\epsilon Q_{in}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>W</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <mi>ϵ</mi>
        <msub>
          <mi>Q</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W_{in}=\epsilon Q_{in}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8269d3ba2249c863c010dead885ff99e121c9db6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.646ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="W_{in} = \epsilon Q_{in}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 11.646ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8269d3ba2249c863c010dead885ff99e121c9db6" data-alt="W_{in} = \epsilon Q_{in}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span></dd>
</dl><p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \epsilon }">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>ϵ</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \epsilon }</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3837cad72483d97bcdde49c85d3b7b859fb3fd2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.944ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="\epsilon "></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 0.944ex;height: 1.676ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3837cad72483d97bcdde49c85d3b7b859fb3fd2" data-alt="\epsilon " data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the heat engine efficiency and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{in}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>Q</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{in}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/515dc23886db2c8ddb69a53b3aebef426872c1cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.624ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="Q_{in}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 3.624ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/515dc23886db2c8ddb69a53b3aebef426872c1cb" data-alt="Q_{in}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the total rate of heat input into the system per unit surface area. Given that a tropical cyclone may be idealized as a <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone#Secondary_circulation:_a_Carnot_heat_engine" title="Tropical cyclone">Carnot heat engine</a>, the Carnot heat engine efficiency is given by</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \epsilon ={\frac {T_{s}-T_{o}}{T_{s}}}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>ϵ</mi>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mfrac>
            <mrow>
              <msub>
                <mi>T</mi>
                <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                  <mi>s</mi>
                </mrow>
              </msub>
              <mo>−</mo>
              <msub>
                <mi>T</mi>
                <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                  <mi>o</mi>
                </mrow>
              </msub>
            </mrow>
            <msub>
              <mi>T</mi>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mi>s</mi>
              </mrow>
            </msub>
          </mfrac>
        </mrow>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \epsilon ={\frac {T_{s}-T_{o}}{T_{s}}}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3d13070a354bd41817899af53295c2ab101623db" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:12.467ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="\epsilon = \frac{T_s-T_o}{T_s}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 12.467ex;height: 5.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3d13070a354bd41817899af53295c2ab101623db" data-alt="\epsilon = \frac{T_s-T_o}{T_s}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span></dd>
</dl><p>Heat (enthalpy) per unit mass is given by</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k=C_{p}T+L_{v}q}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>k</mi>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <msub>
          <mi>C</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>p</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mi>T</mi>
        <mo>+</mo>
        <msub>
          <mi>L</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>v</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mi>q</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k=C_{p}T+L_{v}q}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ae53f584c21e8b2c909b2df0a1921e81c460e77a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:15.189ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="k = C_pT + L_vq"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 15.189ex;height: 2.843ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ae53f584c21e8b2c909b2df0a1921e81c460e77a" data-alt="k = C_pT + L_vq" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span></dd>
</dl><p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{p}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>C</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>p</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{p}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6bc37470431fbf62081b69ba870ad3f855178361" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.721ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="C_{p}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.721ex;height: 2.843ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6bc37470431fbf62081b69ba870ad3f855178361" data-alt="C_{p}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the heat capacity of air, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>T</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="T"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.636ex;height: 2.176ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" data-alt="T" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is air temperature, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L_{v}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>L</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>v</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L_{v}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/67d3252ec5dbd18467fc109498966e5abb43123b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.612ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="L_{v}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.612ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/67d3252ec5dbd18467fc109498966e5abb43123b" data-alt="L_{v}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the latent heat of vaporization, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi>q</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/06809d64fa7c817ffc7e323f85997f783dbdf71d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.07ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="q"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.07ex;height: 2.009ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/06809d64fa7c817ffc7e323f85997f783dbdf71d" data-alt="q" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the concentration of water vapor. The first component corresponds to <a href="/wiki/Sensible_heat" title="Sensible heat">sensible heat</a> and the second to <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a>.</p>
<p>There are two sources of heat input. The dominant source is the input of heat at the surface, primarily due to evaporation. The bulk aerodynamic formula for the rate of heat input per unit area at the surface, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{in:k}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>Q</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
            <mo>:</mo>
            <mi>k</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{in:k}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0104639003b206dfdcd07a2c91a8c4f813fa46ec" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.938ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="Q_{in:k}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 4.938ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0104639003b206dfdcd07a2c91a8c4f813fa46ec" data-alt="Q_{in:k}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span>, is given by</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{in:k}=C_{k}\rho |\mathbf {u} |\Delta k}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>Q</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
            <mo>:</mo>
            <mi>k</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <msub>
          <mi>C</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>k</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mi>ρ</mi>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
        </mrow>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi>
        </mrow>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
        </mrow>
        <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi>
        <mi>k</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{in:k}=C_{k}\rho |\mathbf {u} |\Delta k}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/214a42f4bebfa205748de94a7fdddd82b275c24b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:17.915ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="Q_{in:k} = C_k \rho |\mathbf{u}|\Delta k"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 17.915ex;height: 2.843ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/214a42f4bebfa205748de94a7fdddd82b275c24b" data-alt="Q_{in:k} = C_k \rho |\mathbf{u}|\Delta k" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span></dd>
</dl><p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta k=k_{s}^{*}-k}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi>
        <mi>k</mi>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <msubsup>
          <mi>k</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>s</mi>
          </mrow>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mo>∗</mo>
          </mrow>
        </msubsup>
        <mo>−</mo>
        <mi>k</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta k=k_{s}^{*}-k}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9089989e80b0a50c6c382db270b231c5ed25b91b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:12.563ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="\Delta k = k^*_s-k"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 12.563ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9089989e80b0a50c6c382db270b231c5ed25b91b" data-alt="\Delta k = k^*_s-k" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> represents the enthalpy difference between the ocean surface and the overlying air. The second source is the internal sensible heat generated from frictional dissipation (equal to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W_{out}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>W</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>o</mi>
            <mi>u</mi>
            <mi>t</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W_{out}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0b268f9b2a16d3e3e32de585eb140111f92f71fc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.757ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="W_{out}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 4.757ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0b268f9b2a16d3e3e32de585eb140111f92f71fc" data-alt="W_{out}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span>), which occurs near the surface within the tropical cyclone and is recycled to the system.</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{in:friction}=C_{d}\rho |\mathbf {u} |^{3}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>Q</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
            <mo>:</mo>
            <mi>f</mi>
            <mi>r</mi>
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>c</mi>
            <mi>t</mi>
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>o</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <msub>
          <mi>C</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>d</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mi>ρ</mi>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
        </mrow>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi>
        </mrow>
        <msup>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
          </mrow>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mn>3</mn>
          </mrow>
        </msup>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{in:friction}=C_{d}\rho |\mathbf {u} |^{3}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2fe1dcdb61e7bfeee97809e85614892266902925" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:20.839ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="Q_{in:friction} = C_d \rho |\mathbf{u}|^3"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 20.839ex;height: 3.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2fe1dcdb61e7bfeee97809e85614892266902925" data-alt="Q_{in:friction} = C_d \rho |\mathbf{u}|^3" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span></dd>
</dl><p>Thus, the total rate of net energy production per unit surface area is given by</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W_{in}={\frac {T_{s}-T_{o}}{T_{s}}}\left(C_{k}\rho |\mathbf {u} |\Delta k+C_{d}\rho |\mathbf {u} |^{3}\right)}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>W</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mfrac>
            <mrow>
              <msub>
                <mi>T</mi>
                <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                  <mi>s</mi>
                </mrow>
              </msub>
              <mo>−</mo>
              <msub>
                <mi>T</mi>
                <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                  <mi>o</mi>
                </mrow>
              </msub>
            </mrow>
            <msub>
              <mi>T</mi>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mi>s</mi>
              </mrow>
            </msub>
          </mfrac>
        </mrow>
        <mrow>
          <mo>(</mo>
          <mrow>
            <msub>
              <mi>C</mi>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mi>k</mi>
              </mrow>
            </msub>
            <mi>ρ</mi>
            <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
              <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
            </mrow>
            <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
              <mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi>
            </mrow>
            <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
              <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
            </mrow>
            <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi>
            <mi>k</mi>
            <mo>+</mo>
            <msub>
              <mi>C</mi>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mi>d</mi>
              </mrow>
            </msub>
            <mi>ρ</mi>
            <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
              <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
            </mrow>
            <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
              <mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi>
            </mrow>
            <msup>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
              </mrow>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mn>3</mn>
              </mrow>
            </msup>
          </mrow>
          <mo>)</mo>
        </mrow>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W_{in}={\frac {T_{s}-T_{o}}{T_{s}}}\left(C_{k}\rho |\mathbf {u} |\Delta k+C_{d}\rho |\mathbf {u} |^{3}\right)}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2362233e63692f12d6da7082ca7682bc376bf50e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:39.173ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="W_{in} = \frac{T_s-T_o}{T_s}\left(C_k \rho |\mathbf{u}|\Delta k + C_d \rho |\mathbf{u}|^3\right)"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 39.173ex;height: 5.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2362233e63692f12d6da7082ca7682bc376bf50e" data-alt="W_{in} = \frac{T_s-T_o}{T_s}\left(C_k \rho |\mathbf{u}|\Delta k + C_d \rho |\mathbf{u}|^3\right)" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span></dd>
</dl><p>Setting <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W_{in}=W_{out}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>W</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
        <mo>=</mo>
        <msub>
          <mi>W</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>o</mi>
            <mi>u</mi>
            <mi>t</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W_{in}=W_{out}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c6f53455e8968a96b21c527503bcdbd7366eea31" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.835ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="W_{in} = W_{out}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 11.835ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c6f53455e8968a96b21c527503bcdbd7366eea31" data-alt="W_{in} = W_{out}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> and taking <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\mathbf {u} |\approx v}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
        </mrow>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi>
        </mrow>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
        </mrow>
        <mo>≈</mo>
        <mi>v</mi>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\mathbf {u} |\approx v}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/25851db8dca7bd27c6e09ff4a1824ffc3d87e4a7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.005ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="|\mathbf{u}| \approx v"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 7.005ex;height: 2.843ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/25851db8dca7bd27c6e09ff4a1824ffc3d87e4a7" data-alt="|\mathbf{u}| \approx v" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> (i.e. the rotational wind speed is dominant) leads to the solution for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{p}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>v</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>p</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{p}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/537e72b1a70774ae976de89f7919dc0e0a9bb86d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.187ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="v_p"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.187ex;height: 2.343ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/537e72b1a70774ae976de89f7919dc0e0a9bb86d" data-alt="v_p" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> given above. This derivation assumes that total energy input and loss within the system can be approximated by their values at the radius of maximum wind. The inclusion of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{in:friction}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>Q</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
            <mo>:</mo>
            <mi>f</mi>
            <mi>r</mi>
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>c</mi>
            <mi>t</mi>
            <mi>i</mi>
            <mi>o</mi>
            <mi>n</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{in:friction}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f86b3b4c47fe71666adb37279f71b3b5c64b460" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:9.951ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="Q_{in:friction}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 9.951ex;height: 2.843ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f86b3b4c47fe71666adb37279f71b3b5c64b460" data-alt="Q_{in:friction}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> acts to multiply the total heat input rate by the factor <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {T_{s}}{T_{o}}}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <mfrac>
            <msub>
              <mi>T</mi>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mi>s</mi>
              </mrow>
            </msub>
            <msub>
              <mi>T</mi>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mi>o</mi>
              </mrow>
            </msub>
          </mfrac>
        </mrow>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {T_{s}}{T_{o}}}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b1ef1f391bd63bfb0962f7b1f4cc2161504a7fe8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:3.223ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="\frac{T_s}{T_o}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 3.223ex;height: 5.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b1ef1f391bd63bfb0962f7b1f4cc2161504a7fe8" data-alt="\frac{T_s}{T_o}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span>. Mathematically, this has the effect of replacing <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{s}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>T</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>s</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{s}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/942b5ac7697c72b9e3bc1e3b340daf7189fdf61f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.361ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="T_{s}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.361ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/942b5ac7697c72b9e3bc1e3b340daf7189fdf61f" data-alt="T_{s}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{o}}">
  <semantics>
    <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>T</mi>
          <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
            <mi>o</mi>
          </mrow>
        </msub>
      </mstyle>
    </mrow>
    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{o}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2991f18ef81fec2f94e3a532df91a079f3f6697d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.387ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="T_{o}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.387ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2991f18ef81fec2f94e3a532df91a079f3f6697d" data-alt="T_{o}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> in the denominator of the Carnot efficiency.</p>
<p>An alternative definition for the maximum potential intensity, which is mathematically equivalent to the above formulation, is</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{p}={\sqrt {{\frac {T_{s}}{T_{o}}}{\frac {C_{k}}{C_{d}}}(CAPE_{s}^{*}-CAPE_{b})|_{m}}}}">
  <semantics>
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      <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
        <msub>
          <mi>v</mi>
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        <mo>=</mo>
        <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
          <msqrt>
            <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
              <mfrac>
                <msub>
                  <mi>T</mi>
                  <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                    <mi>s</mi>
                  </mrow>
                </msub>
                <msub>
                  <mi>T</mi>
                  <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                    <mi>o</mi>
                  </mrow>
                </msub>
              </mfrac>
            </mrow>
            <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
              <mfrac>
                <msub>
                  <mi>C</mi>
                  <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                    <mi>k</mi>
                  </mrow>
                </msub>
                <msub>
                  <mi>C</mi>
                  <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                    <mi>d</mi>
                  </mrow>
                </msub>
              </mfrac>
            </mrow>
            <mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
            <mi>C</mi>
            <mi>A</mi>
            <mi>P</mi>
            <msubsup>
              <mi>E</mi>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mi>s</mi>
              </mrow>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mo>∗</mo>
              </mrow>
            </msubsup>
            <mo>−</mo>
            <mi>C</mi>
            <mi>A</mi>
            <mi>P</mi>
            <msub>
              <mi>E</mi>
              <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
                <mi>b</mi>
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            <mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
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                <mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{p}={\sqrt {{\frac {T_{s}}{T_{o}}}{\frac {C_{k}}{C_{d}}}(CAPE_{s}^{*}-CAPE_{b})|_{m}}}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/862f63638626f581ec9d4267a2fa1270b740e2c5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:37.404ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="v_p = \sqrt{\frac{T_s}{T_o}\frac{C_k}{C_d}(CAPE^*_s-CAPE_b)|_m}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 37.404ex;height: 7.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/862f63638626f581ec9d4267a2fa1270b740e2c5" data-alt="v_p = \sqrt{\frac{T_s}{T_o}\frac{C_k}{C_d}(CAPE^*_s-CAPE_b)|_m}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span></dd>
</dl><p>where CAPE stands for the <a href="/wiki/Convective_Available_Potential_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Convective Available Potential Energy">Convective Available Potential Energy</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle CAPE_{s}^{*}}">
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle CAPE_{s}^{*}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c99041728b162b79b419529273acff7516e119c7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.103ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="CAPE^*_s"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 8.103ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c99041728b162b79b419529273acff7516e119c7" data-alt="CAPE^*_s" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the CAPE of an air parcel lifted from saturation at sea level in reference to the environmental <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_sounding" title="Atmospheric sounding">sounding</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle CAPE_{b}}">
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle CAPE_{b}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cbf0edc477551cc88e22167570fbf9851210c87f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.908ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="CAPE_b"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 7.908ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cbf0edc477551cc88e22167570fbf9851210c87f" data-alt="CAPE_b" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is the CAPE of the boundary layer air, and both quantities are calculated at the radius of maximum wind.<sup id="cite_ref-Bister_Emanuel_2002_JGRA_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bister_Emanuel_2002_JGRA-33">[33]</a></sup></p>
<h4 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Characteristic_values_and_variability_on_Earth">Characteristic values and variability on Earth</span></h4>
<p>On Earth, a characteristic temperature for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{s}}">
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{s}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/942b5ac7697c72b9e3bc1e3b340daf7189fdf61f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.361ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="T_{s}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.361ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/942b5ac7697c72b9e3bc1e3b340daf7189fdf61f" data-alt="T_{s}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is 300 K and for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{o}}">
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{o}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2991f18ef81fec2f94e3a532df91a079f3f6697d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.387ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="T_{o}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.387ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2991f18ef81fec2f94e3a532df91a079f3f6697d" data-alt="T_{o}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is 200 K, corresponding to a Carnot efficiency of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \epsilon =1/3}">
  <semantics>
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        <mn>3</mn>
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \epsilon =1/3}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/878465995e88d7bd374c9b9820ab20420fc7191b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.53ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="\epsilon = 1/3"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 7.53ex;height: 2.843ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/878465995e88d7bd374c9b9820ab20420fc7191b" data-alt="\epsilon = 1/3" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span>. The ratio of the surface exchange coefficients, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{k}/C_{d}}">
  <semantics>
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          <mo>/</mo>
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{k}/C_{d}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8b1c4c1e92fc95d5c4233588d3f4fb689a40c887" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.667ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="C_k/C_d"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 6.667ex;height: 2.843ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8b1c4c1e92fc95d5c4233588d3f4fb689a40c887" data-alt="C_k/C_d" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span>, is typically taken to be 1. However, observations suggest that the drag coefficient <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{d}}">
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{d}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d638b409d293db1874a1503bd0f87d20b3d57ed7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.754ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="C_{d}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.754ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d638b409d293db1874a1503bd0f87d20b3d57ed7" data-alt="C_{d}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> varies with wind speed and may decrease at high wind speeds within the boundary layer of a mature hurricane.<sup id="cite_ref-Powell_etal_2003_Nat_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powell_etal_2003_Nat-34">[34]</a></sup> Additionally, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{k}}">
  <semantics>
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{k}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1a0887b56787ba96e79de2b9f5c6ff30aabad1c6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.751ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="C_{k}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.751ex;height: 2.509ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1a0887b56787ba96e79de2b9f5c6ff30aabad1c6" data-alt="C_{k}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> may vary at high wind speeds due to the effect of <a href="/wiki/Sea_spray" title="Sea spray">sea spray</a> on evaporation within the boundary layer.<sup id="cite_ref-Bell_etal_2012_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bell_etal_2012-35">[35]</a></sup></p>
<p>A characteristic value of the maximum potential intensity, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{p}}">
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{p}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/537e72b1a70774ae976de89f7919dc0e0a9bb86d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.187ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="v_p"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.187ex;height: 2.343ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/537e72b1a70774ae976de89f7919dc0e0a9bb86d" data-alt="v_p" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span>, is 80 metres per second (180 mph; 290 km/h). However, this quantity varies significantly across space and time, particularly within the <a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">seasonal cycle</a>, spanning a range of 0 to 100 metres per second (0 to 224 mph; 0 to 360 km/h).<sup id="cite_ref-Bister_Emanuel_2002_JGRA_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bister_Emanuel_2002_JGRA-33">[33]</a></sup> This variability is primarily due to variability in the surface enthalpy disequilibrium ( <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta k}">
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta k}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3f4119f8a26ff6ff37ca2d302fc36bf91334ec5c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.147ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="\Delta k"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 3.147ex;height: 2.176ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3f4119f8a26ff6ff37ca2d302fc36bf91334ec5c" data-alt="\Delta k" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> ) as well as in the thermodynamic structure of the troposphere, which are controlled by the large-scale dynamics of the tropical climate. These processes are modulated by factors including the sea surface temperature (and underlying ocean dynamics), background near-surface wind speed, and the vertical structure of atmospheric radiative heating.<sup id="cite_ref-Emanuel_Sobel_2013_JAMES_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emanuel_Sobel_2013_JAMES-36">[36]</a></sup> The nature of this modulation is complex, particularly on climate time-scales (decades or longer). On shorter time-scales, variability in the maximum potential intensity is commonly linked to sea surface temperature perturbations from the tropical mean, as regions with relatively warm water have thermodynamic states much more capable of sustaining a tropical cyclone than regions with relatively cold water.<sup id="cite_ref-Sobel_Bretherton_2000_JC_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sobel_Bretherton_2000_JC-37">[37]</a></sup> However, this relationship is indirect via the large-scale dynamics of the tropics; the direct influence of the absolute sea surface temperature on <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{p}}">
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    <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{p}}</annotation>
  </semantics></math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/537e72b1a70774ae976de89f7919dc0e0a9bb86d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.187ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="v_p"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.187ex;height: 2.343ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/537e72b1a70774ae976de89f7919dc0e0a9bb86d" data-alt="v_p" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline"> </span></span> is weak in comparison.</p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Interaction_with_the_upper_ocean">Interaction with the upper ocean</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:GulfMexTemps_2005Hurricanes.gif" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/GulfMexTemps_2005Hurricanes.gif/220px-GulfMexTemps_2005Hurricanes.gif" width="220" height="169" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1215" data-file-height="931"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 169px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/GulfMexTemps_2005Hurricanes.gif/220px-GulfMexTemps_2005Hurricanes.gif" data-alt="" data-width="220" data-height="169" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:GulfMexTemps_2005Hurricanes.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Chart displaying the drop in surface temperature in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> as Hurricanes <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Katrina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Rita" title="Hurricane Rita">Rita</a> passed over</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The passage of a tropical cyclone over the ocean causes the upper layers of the ocean to cool substantially, which can influence subsequent cyclone development. This cooling is primarily caused by wind-driven mixing of cold water from deeper in the ocean with the warm surface waters. This effect results in a negative feedback process that can inhibit further development or lead to weakening. Additional cooling may come in the form of cold water from falling raindrops (this is because the atmosphere is cooler at higher altitudes). Cloud cover may also play a role in cooling the ocean, by shielding the ocean surface from direct sunlight before and slightly after the storm passage. All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA_Cooling_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA_Cooling-38">[38]</a></sup></p>
<div style="clear:both;"></div>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(3)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Major_basins_and_related_warning_centers">Major basins and related warning centers</span></h2><div class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3">
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_basins" title="Tropical cyclone basins">Tropical cyclone basins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regional_Specialized_Meteorological_Center" title="Regional Specialized Meteorological Center">Regional Specialized Meteorological Center</a></div>
<table class="wikitable" style="float:right; background:none;"><tr><th colspan="4" style="background: #ccf;">Tropical cyclone basins and official warning centers</th>
</tr><tr><th>Basin</th>
<th>Warning center</th>
<th>Area of responsibility</th>
<th>Notes</th>
</tr><tr><td colspan="4">
<center><b>Northern Hemisphere</b></center>
</td>
</tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane" title="Atlantic hurricane">North Atlantic</a><br><a href="/wiki/Pacific_hurricane" title="Pacific hurricane">Eastern Pacific</a></td>
<td>United States <a href="/wiki/National_Hurricane_Center" title="National Hurricane Center">National Hurricane Center</a><br>
United States <a href="/wiki/Central_Pacific_Hurricane_Center" title="Central Pacific Hurricane Center">Central Pacific Hurricane Center</a></td>
<td>Equator northward, African Coast – 140°W<br>
Equator northward, 140°W-180</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-ATL/EPAC_TCOP_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ATL/EPAC_TCOP-39">[39]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">Western Pacific</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency" title="Japan Meteorological Agency">Japan Meteorological Agency</a></td>
<td>Equator-60°N, 180-100°E</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-WPAC_TCOP_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPAC_TCOP-40">[40]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/North_Indian_Ocean_tropical_cyclone" title="North Indian Ocean tropical cyclone">North Indian Ocean</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/India_Meteorological_Department" title="India Meteorological Department">India Meteorological Department</a></td>
<td>Equator northward, 100°E-45°E</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-NIO_TCOP_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIO_TCOP-41">[41]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="4">
<center><b>Southern Hemisphere</b></center>
</td>
</tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/South-West_Indian_Ocean_tropical_cyclone" title="South-West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone">South-West<br>
Indian Ocean</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9t%C3%A9o-France" title="Météo-France">Météo-France</a> Reunion</td>
<td>Equator-40°S, African Coast-90°E</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-SWIO_TCOP_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SWIO_TCOP-42">[42]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/Australian_region_tropical_cyclone" title="Australian region tropical cyclone">Australian region</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Agency_for_Meteorology,_Climatology_and_Geophysics" title="Indonesian Agency for Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics">Indonesian Agency for Meteorology,<br>
Climatology and Geophysics</a> (BMKG)<br>
Papua New Guinea National Weather Service,<br>
Australian <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Meteorology" title="Bureau of Meteorology">Bureau of Meteorology</a></td>
<td>Equator-10°S, 90°E-141°E<br>
Equator-10°S, 141°E-160°E<br>
10°S-36°S, 90°E-160°E</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPAC_TCOP-43">[43]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_tropical_cyclone" title="South Pacific tropical cyclone">Southern Pacific</a></td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Fiji_Meteorological_Service" title="Fiji Meteorological Service">Fiji Meteorological Service</a><br><a href="/wiki/Meteorological_Service_of_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteorological Service of New Zealand">Meteorological Service of New Zealand</a></td>
<td>Equator-25°S, 160°E-120°W<br>
25°S-40°S, 160°E-120°W</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPAC_TCOP-43">[43]</a></sup></td>
</tr></table><p>There are six <a href="/wiki/Regional_Specialized_Meteorological_Center" title="Regional Specialized Meteorological Center">Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers</a> (RSMCs) worldwide. These organizations are designated by the <a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a> and are responsible for tracking and issuing bulletins, warnings, and advisories about tropical cyclones in their designated areas of responsibility. In addition, there are six <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Cyclone_Warning_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical Cyclone Warning Center">Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers</a> (TCWCs) that provide information to smaller regions.<sup id="cite_ref-WMO_RSMC_list_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WMO_RSMC_list-44">[44]</a></sup></p>
<p>The RSMCs and TCWCs are not the only organizations that provide information about tropical cyclones to the public. The <a href="/wiki/Joint_Typhoon_Warning_Center" title="Joint Typhoon Warning Center">Joint Typhoon Warning Center</a> (JTWC) issues advisories in all basins except the Northern Atlantic for the purposes of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government">United States Government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Atmospheric,_Geophysical_and_Astronomical_Services_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration">Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration</a> (PAGASA) issues advisories and names for tropical cyclones that approach the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> in the Northwestern Pacific to protect the life and property of its citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-PAG_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PAG-46">[46]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Hurricane_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Hurricane Center">Canadian Hurricane Center</a> (CHC) issues advisories on hurricanes and their remnants for Canadian citizens when they affect Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-CHC_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHC-47">[47]</a></sup></p>
<p>On March 26, 2004, <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Catarina" title="Hurricane Catarina">Hurricane Catarina</a> became the first recorded <a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_tropical_cyclone" title="South Atlantic tropical cyclone">South Atlantic cyclone</a>, striking southern <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> with winds equivalent to Category 2 on the <a href="/wiki/Saffir-Simpson_Hurricane_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale">Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale</a>. As the cyclone formed outside the authority of another warning center, Brazilian meteorologists initially treated the system as an <a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">extratropical cyclone</a>, but later on classified it as tropical.<sup id="cite_ref-Emerson_Marcelino_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emerson_Marcelino-48">[48]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(4)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Formation">Formation</span></h2><div class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4">
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclogenesis" title="Tropical cyclogenesis">Tropical cyclogenesis</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_tropical_cyclone_tracks-edit2.jpg" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Global_tropical_cyclone_tracks-edit2.jpg/250px-Global_tropical_cyclone_tracks-edit2.jpg" width="250" height="125" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="8000" data-file-height="4000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 125px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Global_tropical_cyclone_tracks-edit2.jpg/250px-Global_tropical_cyclone_tracks-edit2.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="125" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_tropical_cyclone_tracks-edit2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Map of the cumulative tracks of all tropical cyclones during the 1985–2005 time period. The <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> west of the <a href="/wiki/International_Date_Line" title="International Date Line">International Date Line</a> sees more tropical cyclones than any other basin, while there is almost no activity in the southern hemisphere between Africa and <a href="/wiki/160th_meridian_west" title="160th meridian west">160˚W</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tropical_cyclones_1945_2006_wikicolor.png" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Tropical_cyclones_1945_2006_wikicolor.png/250px-Tropical_cyclones_1945_2006_wikicolor.png" width="250" height="170" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 170px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Tropical_cyclones_1945_2006_wikicolor.png/250px-Tropical_cyclones_1945_2006_wikicolor.png" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="170" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Tropical_cyclones_1945_2006_wikicolor.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Map of all tropical cyclone tracks from 1945 to 2006. <a href="/wiki/Map_projection#Equal-area" title="Map projection">Equal-area projection</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest. However, each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, while September is the most active month. November is the only month in which all the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_basins" title="Tropical cyclone basins">tropical cyclone basins</a> are active.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G1_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_G1-49">[49]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Times">Times</span></h3>
<p>In the Northern <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, a distinct <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane_season" title="Atlantic hurricane season">cyclone season</a> occurs from June 1 to November 30, sharply peaking from late August through September.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G1_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_G1-49">[49]</a></sup> The statistical peak of the Atlantic hurricane season is September 10. The Northeast <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> has a broader period of activity, but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic.<sup id="cite_ref-NHC_Atl_climatology_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHC_Atl_climatology-50">[50]</a></sup> The Northwest Pacific sees tropical cyclones year-round, with a minimum in February and March and a peak in early September.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G1_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_G1-49">[49]</a></sup> In the North Indian basin, storms are most common from April to December, with peaks in May and November.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G1_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_G1-49">[49]</a></sup> In the Southern Hemisphere, the tropical cyclone year begins on July 1 and runs all year-round encompassing the tropical cyclone seasons, which run from November 1 until the end of April, with peaks in mid-February to early March.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G1_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_G1-49">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TCOP_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TCOP-51">[51]</a></sup></p>
<center>
<table class="wikitable"><tr><th colspan="6" style="background: #ccf;">Season lengths and averages</th>
</tr><tr><th class="unsortable">Basin</th>
<th>Season<br>
start</th>
<th>Season<br>
end</th>
<th>Tropical<br>
cyclones</th>
<th class="unsortable">Refs</th>
</tr><tr><td><b>North Atlantic</b></td>
<td>June 1</td>
<td>November 30</td>
<td>12.1</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E10_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_E10-52">[52]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td><b>Eastern Pacific</b></td>
<td>May 15</td>
<td>November 30</td>
<td>16.6</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E10_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_E10-52">[52]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td><b>Western Pacific</b></td>
<td>January 1</td>
<td>December 31</td>
<td>26.0</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E10_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_E10-52">[52]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td><b>North Indian</b></td>
<td>January 1</td>
<td>December 31</td>
<td>4.8</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E10_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_E10-52">[52]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td><b>South-West Indian</b></td>
<td>July 1</td>
<td>June 30</td>
<td>9.3</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E10_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_E10-52">[52]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SWIO_TCOP_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SWIO_TCOP-42">[42]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td><b>Australian region</b></td>
<td>November 1</td>
<td>April 30</td>
<td>11.0</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td><b>Southern Pacific</b></td>
<td>November 1</td>
<td>April 30</td>
<td>7.3</td>
<td><sup id="cite_ref-2015-16_SO_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2015-16_SO-54">[54]</a></sup></td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="3"><b>Total:</b></td>
<td>87.1</td>
</tr></table></center>
<p><br></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Factors">Factors</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlantic_hurricane_graphic.png" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Atlantic_hurricane_graphic.png/250px-Atlantic_hurricane_graphic.png" width="250" height="188" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="263"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Atlantic_hurricane_graphic.png/250px-Atlantic_hurricane_graphic.png" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="188" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlantic_hurricane_graphic.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Waves in the trade winds in the Atlantic Ocean—areas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing wind—create instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the formation of hurricanes.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The formation of tropical cyclones is the topic of extensive ongoing research and is still not fully understood.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> While six factors appear to be generally necessary, tropical cyclones may occasionally form without meeting all of the following conditions. In most situations, <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">water temperatures</a> of at least 26.5 °C (79.7 °F) are needed down to a depth of at least 50 m (160 ft);<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A15-56">[56]</a></sup> waters of this temperature cause the overlying atmosphere to be unstable enough to sustain convection and thunderstorms.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A16_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A16-57">[57]</a></sup> For tropical transitioning cyclones (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Ophelia_(2017)" title="Hurricane Ophelia (2017)">Hurricane Ophelia (2017)</a>) a water temperature of at least 22.5 °C (72.5 °F) has been suggested.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup></p>
<p>Another factor is rapid cooling with height, which allows the release of the <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_condensation" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of condensation">heat of condensation</a> that powers a tropical cyclone.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A15-56">[56]</a></sup> High humidity is needed, especially in the lower-to-mid <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a>; when there is a great deal of moisture in the atmosphere, conditions are more favorable for disturbances to develop.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A15-56">[56]</a></sup> Low amounts of <a href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">wind shear</a> are needed, as high shear is disruptive to the storm's circulation.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A15-56">[56]</a></sup> Tropical cyclones generally need to form more than 555 km (345 mi) or five degrees of latitude away from the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>, allowing the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis effect">Coriolis effect</a> to deflect winds blowing towards the low pressure center and creating a circulation.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A15-56">[56]</a></sup> Lastly, a formative tropical cyclone needs a preexisting system of disturbed weather. Tropical cyclones will not form spontaneously.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A15-56">[56]</a></sup> Low-latitude and low-level westerly wind bursts associated with the <a href="/wiki/Madden-Julian_oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Madden-Julian oscillation">Madden-Julian oscillation</a> can create favorable conditions for tropical cyclogenesis by initiating tropical disturbances.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Locations">Locations</span></h3>
<p>Most tropical cyclones form in a worldwide band of thunderstorm activity near the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>, referred to as the Intertropical Front (ITF), the <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a> (ITCZ), or the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_trough" title="Monsoon trough">monsoon trough</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MMG_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MMG-60">[60]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PAGASA_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PAGASA-61">[61]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MILLER7_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MILLER7-62">[62]</a></sup> Another important source of atmospheric instability is found in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_wave" title="Tropical wave">tropical waves</a>, which contribute to the development of about 85% of intense tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean and become most of the tropical cyclones in the Eastern Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-MWR_Avila_1995_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MWR_Avila_1995-63">[63]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A4_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A4-64">[64]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Landsea_1993_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landsea_1993-65">[65]</a></sup> The majority forms between 10 and 30 degrees of latitude away of the equator,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> and 87% forms no farther away than 20 degrees north or south.<sup id="cite_ref-BOMmap_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BOMmap-67">[67]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-post-ipcc_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-post-ipcc-68">[68]</a></sup> Because the Coriolis effect initiates and maintains their rotation, tropical cyclones rarely form or move within 5 degrees of the equator, where the effect is weakest.<sup id="cite_ref-BOMmap_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BOMmap-67">[67]</a></sup> However, it is still possible for tropical systems to form within this boundary as <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Storm_Vamei" title="Tropical Storm Vamei">Tropical Storm Vamei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Agni" title="Cyclone Agni">Cyclone Agni</a> did in 2001 and 2004, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-GP1201_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GP1201-69">[69]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JTWC_ATCR_2004_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JTWC_ATCR_2004-70">[70]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(5)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Movement">Movement</span></h2><div class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5">
<p>The movement of a tropical cyclone (i.e. its "track") is typically approximated as the sum of two terms: "steering" by the background environmental wind and "beta drift".<sup id="cite_ref-Holland_JAS_1983_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holland_JAS_1983-71">[71]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Environmental_steering">Environmental steering</span></h3>
<p>Environmental steering is the dominant term. Conceptually, it represents the movement of the storm due to prevailing winds and other wider environmental conditions, similar to "leaves carried along by a stream".<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G6_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_G6-72">[72]</a></sup> Physically, the winds, or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Flow_field&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Flow field (page does not exist)">flow field</a>, in the vicinity of a tropical cyclone may be treated as having two parts: the flow associated with the storm itself, and the large-scale background flow of the environment in which the storm takes place. In this way, tropical cyclone motion may be represented to first-order simply as <a href="/wiki/Advection" title="Advection">advection</a> of the storm by the local environmental flow. This environmental flow is termed the "steering flow".</p>
<p>Climatologically, tropical cyclones are steered primarily westward by the east-to-west <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a> on the equatorial side of the <a href="/wiki/Subtropical_ridge" title="Subtropical ridge">subtropical ridge</a>—a persistent high-pressure area over the world's subtropical oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G6_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_G6-72">[72]</a></sup> In the tropical North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific oceans, the trade winds steer <a href="/wiki/Tropical_wave" title="Tropical wave">tropical easterly waves</a> westward from the African coast toward the Caribbean Sea, North America, and ultimately into the central Pacific Ocean before the waves dampen out.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A4_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A4-64">[64]</a></sup> These waves are the precursors to many tropical cyclones within this region.<sup id="cite_ref-MWR_Avila_1995_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MWR_Avila_1995-63">[63]</a></sup> In contrast, in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> and Western Pacific in both hemispheres, tropical cyclogenesis is influenced less by tropical easterly waves and more by the seasonal movement of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone and the monsoon trough.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-73">[73]</a></sup> Additionally, tropical cyclone motion can be influenced by transient weather systems, such as extratropical cyclones.</p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Beta_drift">Beta drift</span></h3>
<p>In addition to environmental steering, a tropical cyclone will tend to drift slowly poleward and westward, a motion known as "beta drift". This motion is due to the superposition of a vortex, such as a tropical cyclone, onto an environment in which the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a> varies with latitude, such as on a sphere or <a href="/wiki/Beta_plane" title="Beta plane">beta plane</a>. It is induced indirectly by the storm itself, the result of a feedback between the cyclonic flow of the storm and its environment.</p>
<p>Physically, the cyclonic circulation of the storm advects environmental air poleward east of center and equatorial west of center. Because air must conserve its <a href="/wiki/Absolute_angular_momentum" title="Absolute angular momentum">angular momentum</a>, this flow configuration induces a cyclonic gyre equatorward and westward of the storm center and an anticyclonic gyre poleward and eastward of the storm center. The combined flow of these gyres acts to advect the storm slowly poleward and westward. This effect occurs even if there is zero environmental flow.</p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Multiple_storm_interaction">Multiple storm interaction</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fujiwhara_effect" title="Fujiwhara effect">Fujiwhara effect</a></div>
<p>A third component of motion that occurs relatively infrequently involves the interaction of multiple tropical cyclones. When two cyclones approach one another, their centers will begin orbiting cyclonically about a point between the two systems. Depending on their separation distance and strength, the two vortices may simply orbit around one another or else may spiral into the center point and merge. When the two vortices are of unequal size, the larger vortex will tend to dominate the interaction, and the smaller vortex will orbit around it. This phenomenon is called the Fujiwhara effect, after <a href="/wiki/Sakuhei_Fujiwhara" title="Sakuhei Fujiwhara">Sakuhei Fujiwhara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Interaction_with_the_mid-latitude_westerlies">Interaction with the mid-latitude westerlies</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Westerlies" title="Westerlies">Westerlies</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ioke_2006_track.png" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Ioke_2006_track.png/250px-Ioke_2006_track.png" width="250" height="185" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1476"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 185px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Ioke_2006_track.png/250px-Ioke_2006_track.png" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="185" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
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Storm track of <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Ioke" title="Hurricane Ioke">Typhoon Ioke</a>, showing recurvature off the Japanese coast in <a href="/wiki/2006_Pacific_hurricane_season" title="2006 Pacific hurricane season">2006</a></div>
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<p>Though a tropical cyclone typically moves from east to west in the tropics, its track may shift poleward and eastward either as it moves west of the subtropical ridge axis or else if it interacts with the mid-latitude flow, such as the <a href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">jet stream</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">extratropical cyclone</a>. This motion, termed "recurvature", commonly occurs near the western edge of the major ocean basins, where the jet stream typically has a poleward component and extratropical cyclones are common.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup> An example of tropical cyclone recurvature was <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Ioke" title="Hurricane Ioke">Typhoon Ioke</a> in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-CPHC_Ioke_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPHC_Ioke-76">[76]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Landfall">Landfall</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclogenesis#Unusual_areas_of_formation" title="Tropical cyclogenesis">Tropical cyclogenesis § Unusual areas of formation</a></div>
<p>The landfall of a tropical cyclone occurs when a storm's surface center moves over a coastline.<sup id="cite_ref-NHC_glossary_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHC_glossary-9">[9]</a></sup> Storm conditions may be experienced on the coast and inland hours before landfall; in fact, a tropical cyclone can launch its strongest winds over land, yet not make landfall. NOAA uses the term "direct hit" to describe when a location (on the left side of the eye) falls within the radius of maximum winds (or twice that radius if on the right side), whether or not the hurricane's eye made landfall.<sup id="cite_ref-NHC_glossary_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHC_glossary-9">[9]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(6)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Dissipation">Dissipation</span></h2><div class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6">
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Factors_2">Factors</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:TropicalStormFranklin05.jpg" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/TropicalStormFranklin05.jpg/250px-TropicalStormFranklin05.jpg" width="250" height="288" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="5200" data-file-height="6000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 288px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/TropicalStormFranklin05.jpg/250px-TropicalStormFranklin05.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="288" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Tropical_Storm_Franklin_(2005)" title="Tropical Storm Franklin (2005)">Tropical Storm Franklin</a>, an example of a strongly <a href="/wiki/Windshear" class="mw-redirect" title="Windshear">sheared</a> tropical cyclone in the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic hurricane">North Atlantic hurricane</a> basin during <a href="/wiki/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005</a></div>
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<p>A tropical cyclone can cease to have tropical characteristics in several different ways. One such way is if it moves over land, thus depriving it of the warm water it needs to power itself, quickly losing strength.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup> Most strong storms lose their strength very rapidly after landfall and become disorganized areas of low pressure within a day or two, or evolve into extratropical cyclones. There is a chance a tropical cyclone could regenerate if it managed to get back over open warm water, such as with <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Ivan" title="Hurricane Ivan">Hurricane Ivan</a>. If it remains over mountains for even a short time, weakening will accelerate.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup> Many storm fatalities occur in mountainous terrain, when diminishing cyclones unleash their moisture as torrential rainfall.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> This rainfall may lead to deadly floods and mudslides, as was the case with <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Mitch" title="Hurricane Mitch">Hurricane Mitch</a> around Honduras in October 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-nhc_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nhc-80">[80]</a></sup> Without warm surface water, the storm cannot survive.<sup id="cite_ref-Shays_et_al._1989_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shays_et_al._1989-81">[81]</a></sup></p>
<p>A tropical cyclone can dissipate when it moves over waters significantly below 26.5 °C (79.7 °F). This will cause the storm to lose its tropical characteristics, such as a warm core with thunderstorms near the center, and become a remnant <a href="/wiki/Low-pressure_area" title="Low-pressure area">low-pressure area</a>. These remnant systems may persist for up to several days before losing their identity. This dissipation mechanism is most common in the eastern North Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards_genesis_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards_genesis-82">[82]</a></sup> Weakening or dissipation can occur if it experiences vertical wind shear, causing the convection and heat engine to move away from the center; this normally ceases development of a tropical cyclone.<sup id="cite_ref-EAM_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EAM-83">[83]</a></sup> In addition, its interaction with the main belt of the Westerlies, by means of merging with a nearby frontal zone, can cause tropical cyclones to evolve into <a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclones" class="mw-redirect" title="Extratropical cyclones">extratropical cyclones</a>. This transition can take 1–3 days.<sup id="cite_ref-JWTC_intensity_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JWTC_intensity-84">[84]</a></sup> Even after a tropical cyclone is said to be extratropical or dissipated, it can still have tropical storm force (or occasionally hurricane/typhoon force) winds and drop several inches of rainfall. In the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, such tropical-derived cyclones of higher latitudes can be violent and may occasionally remain at hurricane or typhoon-force wind speeds when they reach the west coast of North America. These phenomena can also affect Europe, where they are known as <i><a href="/wiki/European_windstorm" title="European windstorm">European windstorms</a></i>; <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Iris_(1995)" title="Hurricane Iris (1995)">Hurricane Iris's</a> extratropical remnants are an example of such a windstorm from 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-IrisTCR_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IrisTCR-85">[85]</a></sup> A cyclone can also merge with another area of low pressure, becoming a larger area of low pressure. This can strengthen the resultant system, although it may no longer be a tropical cyclone.<sup id="cite_ref-EAM_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EAM-83">[83]</a></sup> Studies in the 2000s have given rise to the hypothesis that large amounts of dust reduce the strength of tropical cyclones.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Artificial_dissipation">Artificial dissipation</span></h3>
<p>In the 1960s and 1970s, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_government" class="mw-redirect" title="United States government">United States government</a> attempted to weaken hurricanes through <a href="/wiki/Project_Stormfury" title="Project Stormfury">Project Stormfury</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cloud_seeding" title="Cloud seeding">seeding</a> selected storms with <a href="/wiki/Silver_iodide" title="Silver iodide">silver iodide</a>. It was thought that the seeding would cause <a href="/wiki/Supercooled_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercooled water">supercooled water</a> in the outer rainbands to freeze, causing the inner eyewall to collapse and thus reducing the winds.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> The winds of <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Debbie_(1969)" title="Hurricane Debbie (1969)">Hurricane Debbie</a>—a hurricane seeded in Project Stormfury—dropped as much as 31%, but Debbie regained its strength after each of two seeding forays.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> In an earlier episode in 1947, disaster struck when a hurricane east of <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville, Florida</a> promptly changed its course after being seeded, and smashed into <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah, Georgia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Whipple_151_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whipple_151-89">[89]</a></sup> Because there was so much uncertainty about the behavior of these storms, the federal government would not approve seeding operations unless the hurricane had a less than 10% chance of making landfall within 48 hours, greatly reducing the number of possible test storms. The project was dropped after it was discovered that <a href="/wiki/Eyewall_replacement_cycle" title="Eyewall replacement cycle">eyewall replacement cycles</a> occur naturally in strong hurricanes, casting doubt on the result of the earlier attempts. Today, it is known that silver iodide seeding is not likely to have an effect because the amount of supercooled water in the rainbands of a tropical cyclone is too low.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5a_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_C5a-90">[90]</a></sup></p>
<p>Other approaches have been suggested over time, including cooling the water under a tropical cyclone by towing <a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">icebergs</a> into the tropical oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5e_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_C5e-91">[91]</a></sup> Other ideas range from covering the ocean in a substance that inhibits evaporation,<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5b_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_C5b-92">[92]</a></sup> dropping large quantities of ice into the eye at very early stages of development (so that the <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_condensation" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of condensation">latent heat</a> is absorbed by the ice, instead of being converted to kinetic energy that would feed the positive feedback loop),<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5e_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_C5e-91">[91]</a></sup> or blasting the cyclone apart with nuclear weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5c_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_C5c-93">[93]</a></sup> Project Cirrus even involved throwing dry ice on a cyclone.<sup id="cite_ref-Sudden_Sea_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sudden_Sea-94">[94]</a></sup> These approaches all suffer from one flaw above many others: tropical cyclones are simply too large and short-lived for any of the weakening techniques to be practical.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5f_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_C5f-95">[95]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(7)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Effects">Effects</span></h2><div class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7">
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hurricane_katrina_damage_gulfport_mississippi.jpg" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Hurricane_katrina_damage_gulfport_mississippi.jpg/250px-Hurricane_katrina_damage_gulfport_mississippi.jpg" width="250" height="166" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 166px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Hurricane_katrina_damage_gulfport_mississippi.jpg/250px-Hurricane_katrina_damage_gulfport_mississippi.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="166" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
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The aftermath of <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gulfport,_Mississippi" title="Gulfport, Mississippi">Gulfport, Mississippi</a>.</div>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_tropical_cyclones" title="Effects of tropical cyclones">Effects of tropical cyclones</a></div>
<p>Tropical cyclones out at sea cause large waves, <a href="/wiki/Heavy_rain_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy rain (meteorology)">heavy rain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">flood</a> and high winds, disrupting international shipping and, at times, causing shipwrecks.<sup id="cite_ref-18cva_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18cva-96">[96]</a></sup> Tropical cyclones stir up water, leaving a cool wake behind them, which causes the region to be less favorable for subsequent tropical cyclones.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA_Cooling_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA_Cooling-38">[38]</a></sup> On land, strong <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">winds</a> can damage or destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges, and other outside objects, turning loose debris into deadly flying projectiles. The <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surge</a>, or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone, is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones, historically resulting in 90% of tropical cyclone deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005-97">[97]</a></sup> The broad rotation of a landfalling tropical cyclone, and vertical wind shear at its periphery, spawns <a href="/wiki/History_of_tropical_cyclone-spawned_tornadoes" title="History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes">tornadoes</a>. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of <a href="/wiki/Eyewall_mesovortices" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyewall mesovortices">eyewall mesovortices</a>, which persist until landfall.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_L6_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_L6-98">[98]</a></sup></p>
<p>Over the past two centuries, tropical cyclones have been responsible for the deaths of about 1.9 million people worldwide. Large areas of standing water caused by flooding lead to infection, as well as contributing to mosquito-borne illnesses. Crowded evacuees in <a href="/wiki/Emergency_shelter" title="Emergency shelter">shelters</a> increase the risk of disease propagation.<sup id="cite_ref-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005-97">[97]</a></sup> Tropical cyclones significantly interrupt infrastructure, leading to power outages, bridge destruction, and the hampering of reconstruction efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005-97">[97]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Power_failures_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Power_failures-99">[99]</a></sup> On average, the Gulf and east coasts of the United States suffer approximately US $5 billion (1995 US $) in cyclone damage every year. The majority (83%) of tropical cyclone damage is caused by severe hurricanes, category 3 or greater. However, category 3 or greater hurricanes only account for about one-fifth of cyclones that make landfall every year.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup></p>
<p>Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> regimes of places they impact, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions.<sup id="cite_ref-2005_EPac_outlook_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2005_EPac_outlook-101">[101]</a></sup> Tropical cyclones also help maintain the global heat balance by moving warm, moist tropical air to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_latitudes" title="Middle latitudes">middle latitudes</a> and polar regions,<sup id="cite_ref-JetStream_introduction_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JetStream_introduction-102">[102]</a></sup> and by regulating the <a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">thermohaline circulation</a> through <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup> The storm surge and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human-made structures, but they also stir up the waters of coastal <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuaries</a>, which are typically important fish breeding locales. Tropical cyclone destruction spurs redevelopment, greatly increasing local property values.<sup id="cite_ref-Christopherson_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christopherson-104">[104]</a></sup></p>
<p>When hurricanes surge upon shore from the ocean, salt is introduced to many freshwater areas and raises the <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a> levels too high for some habitats to withstand. Some are able to cope with the salt and recycle it back into the ocean, but others can not release the extra surface water quickly enough or do not have a large enough freshwater source to replace it. Because of this, some species of plants and vegetation die due to the excess salt.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup> In addition, hurricanes can carry <a href="/wiki/Toxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxins">toxins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Acids">acids</a> onto shore when they make landfall. The flood water can pick up the toxins from different spills and contaminate the land that it passes over. The toxins are very harmful to the people and animals in the area, as well as the environment around them. The flooding water can also spark many dangerous oil spills.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(8)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Observation_and_forecasting">Observation and forecasting</span></h2><div class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8">
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Observation">Observation</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_observation" title="Tropical cyclone observation">Tropical cyclone observation</a></div>
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Sunset view of <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Isidore" title="Hurricane Isidore">Hurricane Isidore</a>'s rainbands photographed at 7,000 feet (2,100 m)</div>
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<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:NOAA_Lockheed_WP-3D_Orion_%22Hurricane_Hunter%22_(N42RF)_at_SENEX_Air_Quality-Climate_Research_Study_(9119691512).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
"Hurricane Hunter" - WP-3D Orion is used to go into the eye of a hurricane for data collection and measurements purposes.</div>
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<p>Intense tropical cyclones pose a particular observation challenge, as they are a dangerous oceanic phenomenon, and <a href="/wiki/Weather_station" title="Weather station">weather stations</a>, being relatively sparse, are rarely available on the site of the storm itself. In general, surface observations are available only if the storm is passing over an island or a coastal area, or if there is a nearby ship. Real-time measurements are usually taken in the periphery of the cyclone, where conditions are less catastrophic and its true strength cannot be evaluated. For this reason, there are teams of meteorologists that move into the path of tropical cyclones to help evaluate their strength at the point of landfall.<sup id="cite_ref-FCMP_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FCMP-107">[107]</a></sup></p>
<p>Tropical cyclones far from land are tracked by <a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">weather satellites</a> capturing <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> images from space, usually at half-hour to quarter-hour intervals. As a storm approaches land, it can be observed by land-based <a href="/wiki/Pulse-Doppler_radar" title="Pulse-Doppler radar">Doppler</a> <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</a>. Radar plays a crucial role around landfall by showing a storm's location and intensity every several minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-CPHC_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPHC-108">[108]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">In situ</a> measurements, in real-time, can be taken by sending specially equipped reconnaissance flights into the cyclone. In the Atlantic basin, these flights are regularly flown by United States government <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_hunters" title="Hurricane hunters">hurricane hunters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hurricane_Hunters_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurricane_Hunters-109">[109]</a></sup> The aircraft used are <a href="/wiki/WC-130" class="mw-redirect" title="WC-130">WC-130</a> Hercules and <a href="/wiki/WP-3D" class="mw-redirect" title="WP-3D">WP-3D</a> Orions, both four-engine <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a> cargo aircraft. These aircraft fly directly into the cyclone and take direct and remote-sensing measurements. The aircraft also launch <a href="/wiki/GPS_dropsonde" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS dropsonde">GPS dropsondes</a> inside the cyclone. These sondes measure temperature, humidity, pressure, and especially winds between flight level and the ocean's surface. A new era in hurricane observation began when a remotely piloted <a href="/wiki/Insitu_Aerosonde" class="mw-redirect" title="Insitu Aerosonde">Aerosonde</a>, a small drone aircraft, was flown through Tropical Storm Ophelia as it passed Virginia's Eastern Shore during the 2005 hurricane season. A similar mission was also completed successfully in the western Pacific Ocean. This demonstrated a new way to probe the storms at low altitudes that human pilots seldom dare.<sup id="cite_ref-SunHerald_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SunHerald-110">[110]</a></sup></p>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:NHC_Atlantic_Forecast_Error_Trends.png" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/NHC_Atlantic_Forecast_Error_Trends.png/250px-NHC_Atlantic_Forecast_Error_Trends.png" width="250" height="188" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/NHC_Atlantic_Forecast_Error_Trends.png/250px-NHC_Atlantic_Forecast_Error_Trends.png" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="188" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
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A general decrease in error trends in tropical cyclone path prediction is evident since the 1970s</div>
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<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Forecasting">Forecasting</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_track_forecasting" title="Tropical cyclone track forecasting">Tropical cyclone track forecasting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_prediction_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical cyclone prediction model">Tropical cyclone prediction model</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_rainfall_forecasting" title="Tropical cyclone rainfall forecasting">Tropical cyclone rainfall forecasting</a></div>
<p>Because of the forces that affect tropical cyclone tracks, accurate track predictions depend on determining the position and strength of high- and low-pressure areas, and predicting how those areas will change during the life of a tropical system. The deep layer mean flow, or average wind through the depth of the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a>, is considered the best tool in determining track direction and speed. If storms are significantly sheared, use of wind speed measurements at a lower altitude, such as at the 70 kPa pressure surface (3,000 metres or 9,800 feet above sea level) will produce better predictions. Tropical forecasters also consider smoothing out short-term <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wiggle" class="extiw" title="wikt:wiggle">wobbles</a> of the storm as it allows them to determine a more accurate long-term trajectory.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> High-speed computers and sophisticated simulation software allow forecasters to produce <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_prediction_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical cyclone prediction model">computer models</a> that predict tropical cyclone tracks based on the future position and strength of high- and low-pressure systems. Combining forecast models with increased understanding of the forces that act on tropical cyclones, as well as with a wealth of data from Earth-orbiting <a href="/wiki/Satellites" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellites">satellites</a> and other sensors, scientists have increased the accuracy of track forecasts over recent decades.<sup id="cite_ref-NHC_forecast_verifications_models_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHC_forecast_verifications_models-112">[112]</a></sup> However, scientists are not as skillful at predicting the intensity of tropical cyclones.<sup id="cite_ref-NHC_forecast_verifications_Atlantic_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHC_forecast_verifications_Atlantic-113">[113]</a></sup> The lack of improvement in intensity forecasting is attributed to the complexity of tropical systems and an incomplete understanding of factors that affect their development. New tropical cyclone position and forecast information is available at least every twelve hours in the Southern Hemisphere and at least every six hours in the Northern Hemisphere from Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers.<sup id="cite_ref-WMO_RSMC_list_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WMO_RSMC_list-44">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NHCprod_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHCprod-116">[116]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(9)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span id="Classifications.2C_terminology.2C_and_naming"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Classifications,_terminology,_and_naming">Classifications, terminology, and naming</span></h2><div class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9">
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Intensity_classifications">Intensity classifications</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_scales" title="Tropical cyclone scales">Tropical cyclone scales</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Maria,_Bopha_and_Saomai_2006-08-07_0435Z.jpg" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Maria%2C_Bopha_and_Saomai_2006-08-07_0435Z.jpg/250px-Maria%2C_Bopha_and_Saomai_2006-08-07_0435Z.jpg" width="250" height="313" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="7200" data-file-height="9000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 313px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Maria%2C_Bopha_and_Saomai_2006-08-07_0435Z.jpg/250px-Maria%2C_Bopha_and_Saomai_2006-08-07_0435Z.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="313" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Maria,_Bopha_and_Saomai_2006-08-07_0435Z.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Three tropical cyclones of the <a href="/wiki/2006_Pacific_typhoon_season" title="2006 Pacific typhoon season">2006 Pacific typhoon season</a> at different stages of development. The weakest (left) demonstrates only the most basic circular shape. A stronger storm (top right) demonstrates <a href="/wiki/Rainbands" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainbands">spiral banding</a> and increased centralization, while the strongest (lower right) has developed an <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">eye</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Tropical cyclones are classified into three main groups, based on intensity: tropical depressions, tropical storms, and a third group of more intense storms, whose name depends on the region. For example, if a <a href="#Tropical_storm">tropical storm</a> in the Northwestern Pacific reaches hurricane-strength winds on the <a href="/wiki/Beaufort_scale" title="Beaufort scale">Beaufort scale</a>, it is referred to as a <i>typhoon</i>; if a tropical storm passes the same benchmark in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_hurricane" title="Pacific hurricane">Northeast Pacific Basin</a>, or in <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic hurricane">the North Atlantic</a>, it is called a <i>hurricane</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-NHC_glossary_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHC_glossary-9">[9]</a></sup> Neither "hurricane" nor "typhoon" is used in either the Southern Hemisphere or the Indian Ocean. In these <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_basins" title="Tropical cyclone basins">basins</a>, storms of a tropical nature are referred to as either tropical cyclones, severe tropical cyclones or very intense tropical cyclones.</p>
<p>As indicated in the table below, each basin uses a separate <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_scales" title="Tropical cyclone scales">system of terminology</a>, which can make comparisons between different basins difficult. In the Pacific Ocean, hurricanes from the Central North Pacific sometimes cross the <a href="/wiki/180th_meridian" title="180th meridian">180th meridian</a> into the Northwest Pacific, becoming typhoons (such as <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Ioke" title="Hurricane Ioke">Hurricane/Typhoon Ioke</a> in 2006); on rare occasions, the reverse will occur.<sup id="cite_ref-CPHC_John_TCR_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPHC_John_TCR-118">[118]</a></sup> It should also be noted that typhoons with 1-minute sustained winds greater than 67 metres per second (m/s), over 150 miles per hour (240 km/h), are called <i>Super Typhoons</i> by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center.<sup id="cite_ref-SUPERDUPER_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SUPERDUPER-119">[119]</a></sup></p>
<h4 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Tropical_depression">Tropical depression</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Tropical Depression" redirects here. For the Filipino reggae band, see <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Depression_(band)" title="Tropical Depression (band)">Tropical Depression (band)</a>. For the EP by Elephant Micah, see <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Depression_(EP)" title="Tropical Depression (EP)">Tropical Depression (EP)</a>.</div>
<p><span id="Tropical_Depression"></span><span id="tropical_depression"></span>A tropical depression or tropical low is a tropical disturbance that has a clearly defined <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">surface circulation</a> with <a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustained_wind" title="Maximum sustained wind">maximum sustained winds</a> of less than 34 kn (39 mph; 63 km/h).<sup id="cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPAC_TCOP-43">[43]</a></sup> Within the Southern Hemisphere, the depression can have gale force or stronger winds in one or more quadrants, but not near the centre.<sup id="cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPAC_TCOP-43">[43]</a></sup></p>
<h4 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Tropical_storm">Tropical storm</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Tropical Storm" redirects here. For the album, see <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Storm_(album)" title="Tropical Storm (album)"><i>Tropical Storm</i> (album)</a>.</div>
<p><span id="Tropical_Storm"></span><span id="tropical_storm"></span> A <b>tropical storm</b> is an organized system of strong thunderstorms with a defined surface circulation and maximum sustained winds between 34 knots (63 km/h) and 64 knots (119 km/h). At this point, the distinctive cyclonic shape starts to develop, although an eye is not usually present. Government weather services first assign names to systems that reach this intensity (thus the term <i>named storm</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_preparedness_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA_preparedness-120">[120]</a></sup> Although tropical storms are less intense than a hurricane they can produce significant damage. The shear force of winds can blow off shingles, and air borne objects can cause damage to power lines, roofing and siding. More dangerous is the heavy rainfall causing inland flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-NWS_Storm_Damage_Centre_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NWS_Storm_Damage_Centre-121">[121]</a></sup></p>
<h4 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Hurricane_or_typhoon">Hurricane or typhoon</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane" title="Atlantic hurricane">Atlantic hurricane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_hurricane" title="Pacific hurricane">Pacific hurricane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">typhoon</a></div>
<p><span id="Hurricane"></span><span id="Typhoon"></span><span id="hurricane"></span><span id="typhoon"></span>A hurricane or typhoon (sometimes simply referred to as a tropical cyclone, as opposed to a depression or storm) is a system with sustained winds of at least 34 m/s (66 kn; 76 mph; 120 km/h).<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_preparedness_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA_preparedness-120">[120]</a></sup> A cyclone of this intensity tends to develop an eye, an area of relative calm (and lowest atmospheric pressure) at the center of circulation. The eye is often visible in satellite images as a small, circular, cloud-free spot. Surrounding the eye is the <a href="/wiki/Eyewall" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyewall">eyewall</a>, an area about 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) to 80 kilometres (50 mi) wide in which the strongest <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorms</a> and winds circulate around the storm's center. Maximum sustained winds in the strongest tropical cyclones have been estimated at about 95 m/s (185 kn; 210 mph; 340 km/h).<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E1_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_E1-122">[122]</a></sup></p>
<center>
<table class="collapsible wikitable" border="1" style="font-size:92%; text-align: center;"><tr><th colspan="9" style="background: #ccf;"><b>Tropical cyclone classifications</b></th>
</tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/Beaufort_scale" title="Beaufort scale">Beaufort<br>
scale</a></th>
<th>1-minute sustained winds</th>
<th>10-minute sustained winds</th>
<th>NE Pacific &amp;<br>
N Atlantic<br><a href="/wiki/National_Hurricane_Center" title="National Hurricane Center">NHC</a>/<a href="/wiki/Central_Pacific_Hurricane_Center" title="Central Pacific Hurricane Center">CPHC</a><sup id="cite_ref-ATL/EPAC_TCOP_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ATL/EPAC_TCOP-39">[39]</a></sup></th>
<th>NW Pacific<br><a href="/wiki/Joint_Typhoon_Warning_Center" title="Joint Typhoon Warning Center">JTWC</a></th>
<th>NW Pacific<br><a href="/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency" title="Japan Meteorological Agency">JMA</a></th>
<th>N Indian Ocean<br><a href="/wiki/Indian_Meteorological_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Meteorological Department">IMD</a><sup id="cite_ref-NIO_TCOP_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIO_TCOP-41">[41]</a></sup></th>
<th>SW Indian Ocean<br><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9t%C3%A9o-France" title="Météo-France">MF</a></th>
<th>Australia &amp; S Pacific<br><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Meteorology_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Meteorology (Australia)">BOM</a>/<a href="/wiki/Fiji_Meteorological_Service" title="Fiji Meteorological Service">FMS</a><sup id="cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPAC_TCOP-43">[43]</a></sup></th>
</tr><tr><td>0–7</td>
<td>&lt;32 knots (37 mph; 59 km/h)</td>
<td>&lt;28 knots (32 mph; 52 km/h)</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #5ebaff">Tropical Depression</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #5ebaff">Tropical Depression</td>
<td rowspan="3" style="background: #5ebaff">Tropical Depression</td>
<td style="background: #80ccff">Depression</td>
<td style="background: #80ccff">Zone of Disturbed Weather</td>
<td rowspan="3" style="background: #5ebaff">Tropical Disturbance<br>
Tropical Depression<br>
Tropical Low</td>
</tr><tr><td>7</td>
<td>33 knots (38 mph; 61 km/h)</td>
<td>28–29 knots (32–33 mph; 52–54 km/h)</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #5ebaff">Deep Depression</td>
<td style="background: #5ebaff">Tropical Disturbance</td>
</tr><tr><td>8</td>
<td>34–37 knots (39–43 mph; 63–69 km/h)</td>
<td>30–33 knots (35–38 mph; 56–61 km/h)</td>
<td rowspan="3" style="background: #00faf4">Tropical Storm</td>
<td rowspan="3" style="background: #00faf4">Tropical Storm</td>
<td style="background: #5ebaff">Tropical Depression</td>
</tr><tr><td>9–10</td>
<td>38–54 knots (44–62 mph; 70–100 km/h)</td>
<td>34–47 knots (39–54 mph; 63–87 km/h)</td>
<td style="background: #00faf4">Tropical Storm</td>
<td style="background: #00faf4">Cyclonic Storm</td>
<td style="background: #00faf4">Moderate Tropical Storm</td>
<td style="background: #00faf4">Category 1<br>
tropical cyclone</td>
</tr><tr><td>11</td>
<td>55–63 knots (63–72 mph; 102–117 km/h)</td>
<td>48–55 knots (55–63 mph; 89–102 km/h)</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #ccffff">Severe Tropical Storm</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #ccffff">Severe Cyclonic Storm</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #ccffff">Severe Tropical Storm</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #ccffff">Category 2<br>
tropical cyclone</td>
</tr><tr><td rowspan="9">12+</td>
<td>64–71 knots (74–82 mph; 119–131 km/h)</td>
<td>56–63 knots (64–72 mph; 104–117 km/h)</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #ffffcc">Category 1 hurricane</td>
<td rowspan="7" style="background: #fdaf9a">Typhoon</td>
</tr><tr><td>72–82 knots (83–94 mph; 133–152 km/h)</td>
<td>64–72 knots (74–83 mph; 119–133 km/h)</td>
<td rowspan="8" style="background:#fdaf9a">Typhoon</td>
<td rowspan="3" style="background: #ffffcc">Very Severe<br>
Cyclonic Storm</td>
<td rowspan="3" style="background: #ffffcc">Tropical Cyclone</td>
<td rowspan="3" style="background: #ffffcc">Category 3 severe<br>
tropical cyclone</td>
</tr><tr><td>83–95 knots (96–109 mph; 154–176 km/h)</td>
<td>73–83 knots (84–96 mph; 135–154 km/h)</td>
<td style="background: #ffe775">Category 2 hurricane</td>
</tr><tr><td>96–97 knots (110–112 mph; 178–180 km/h)</td>
<td>84–85 knots (97–98 mph; 156–157 km/h)</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #ffc140">Category 3 major hurricane</td>
</tr><tr><td>98–112 knots (113–129 mph; 181–207 km/h)</td>
<td>86–98 knots (99–113 mph; 159–181 km/h)</td>
<td rowspan="3" style="background: #ffc140">Extremely Severe<br>
Cyclonic Storm</td>
<td rowspan="3" style="background: #ffc140">Intense Tropical Cyclone</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #ffc140">Category 4 severe<br>
tropical cyclone</td>
</tr><tr><td>113–122 knots (130–140 mph; 209–226 km/h)</td>
<td>99–107 knots (114–123 mph; 183–198 km/h)</td>
<td rowspan="3" style="background: #ff8f20">Category 4 major hurricane</td>
</tr><tr><td>123–129 knots (142–148 mph; 228–239 km/h)</td>
<td>108–113 knots (124–130 mph; 200–209 km/h)</td>
<td rowspan="3" style="background: #ff6060">Category 5 severe<br>
tropical cyclone</td>
</tr><tr><td>130–136 knots (150–157 mph; 241–252 km/h)</td>
<td>114–119 knots (131–137 mph; 211–220 km/h)</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #ff6060">Super Typhoon</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #ff6060">Super Cyclonic Storm</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="background: #ff6060">Very Intense Tropical Cyclone</td>
</tr><tr><td>&gt;137 knots (158 mph; 254 km/h)</td>
<td>&gt;120 knots (140 mph; 220 km/h)</td>
<td style="background: #ff6060">Category 5 major hurricane</td>
</tr></table></center>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Origin_of_storm_terms">Origin of storm terms</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:101.typhoon.altonthompson.jpg" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/101.typhoon.altonthompson.jpg/250px-101.typhoon.altonthompson.jpg" width="250" height="210" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="587"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/101.typhoon.altonthompson.jpg/250px-101.typhoon.altonthompson.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="210" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:101.typhoon.altonthompson.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
<a href="/wiki/Taipei_101" title="Taipei 101">Taipei 101</a> endures a typhoon in 2005</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The word <i>typhoon</i>, which is used today in the Northwest Pacific, may be derived from <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> <i>ţūfān</i> (طوفان) (similar in <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>), which in turn originates from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Typhon" title="Typhon">Typhon</a></i> (Τυφών), a monster from <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a> associated with storms.<sup id="cite_ref-Greek_typhoon_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greek_typhoon-123">[123]</a></sup> The related <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> word <i>tufão</i>, used in Portuguese for typhoons, is also derived from <i>Typhon.</i><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Disputed_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Disputed statement"><span title="This claim has reliable sources with contradicting facts (September 2017)">disputed</span></a> (for: folk etymology?)  <span class="metadata">– <a href="/wiki/Talk:Tropical_cyclone" title="Talk:Tropical cyclone">discuss</a></span></i>]</sup> The word is also similar to Chinese "táifēng" (Simplified Chinese: 台风, Traditional Chinese: 颱風) (fēng = wind), "toifung" in <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a>, "taifū" (台風) in Japanese, and "taepung" (태풍) in Korean.</p>
<p>The word <i>hurricane</i>, used in the North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific, is derived from <i>huracán</i>, the Spanish word for the <a href="/wiki/Island_Caribs" title="Island Caribs">Carib</a>/<a href="/wiki/Taino_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Taino people">Taino</a> storm god, <a href="/wiki/Jurac%C3%A1n" title="Juracán">Juracán</a>. This god is believed by scholars to have been at least partially derived from the <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Mayan</a> creator god, <a href="/wiki/Huracan" title="Huracan">Huracan</a>. Huracan was believed by the Maya to have created dry land out of the turbulent waters. The god was also credited with later destroying the "wooden people", the precursors to the "<a href="/wiki/Maya_maize_god" title="Maya maize god">maize people</a>", with an immense storm and flood.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_B4_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_B4-125">[125]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mesoamermyth_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mesoamermyth-126">[126]</a></sup> Huracan is also the source of the word <i>orcan</i>, another word for a particularly strong <a href="/wiki/European_windstorm" title="European windstorm">European windstorm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mesoamermyth_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mesoamermyth-126">[126]</a></sup></p>
<h3 class="in-block"><span class="mw-headline" id="Naming">Naming</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_naming" title="Tropical cyclone naming">Tropical cyclone naming</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_tropical_cyclone_naming" title="History of tropical cyclone naming">History of tropical cyclone naming</a></div>
<p>The practice of using names to identify tropical cyclones goes back many years, with systems named after places or things they hit before the formal start of naming.<sup id="cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whats_in_a_name?-127">[127]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mahina_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahina-128">[128]</a></sup> The system currently used provides positive identification of severe weather systems in a brief form, that is readily understood and recognized by the public.<sup id="cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whats_in_a_name?-127">[127]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mahina_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahina-128">[128]</a></sup> The credit for the first usage of personal names for weather systems is generally given to the <a href="/wiki/Queensland_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Queensland Government">Queensland Government</a> Meteorologist <a href="/wiki/Clement_Wragge" class="mw-redirect" title="Clement Wragge">Clement Wragge</a> who named systems between 1887 and 1907.<sup id="cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whats_in_a_name?-127">[127]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mahina_128-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahina-128">[128]</a></sup> This system of naming weather systems subsequently fell into disuse for several years after Wragge retired, until it was revived in the latter part of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> for the Western Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whats_in_a_name?-127">[127]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mahina_128-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahina-128">[128]</a></sup> Formal naming schemes have subsequently been introduced for the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_basins" title="Tropical cyclone basins">North and South Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Western and Southern Pacific basins</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_basins" title="Tropical cyclone basins">Australian region</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mahina_128-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahina-128">[128]</a></sup></p>
<p>At present tropical cyclones are officially named by one of eleven meteorological services and retain their names throughout their lifetimes to provide ease of communication between forecasters and the general public regarding forecasts, watches, and warnings.<sup id="cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whats_in_a_name?-127">[127]</a></sup> Since the systems can last a week or longer and more than one can be occurring in the same basin at the same time, the names are thought to reduce the confusion about what storm is being described.<sup id="cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whats_in_a_name?-127">[127]</a></sup> Names are assigned in order from predetermined <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_tropical_cyclone_names" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists of tropical cyclone names">lists</a> with one, three, or ten-minute sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km/h (40 mph) depending on which basin it originates.<sup id="cite_ref-ATL/EPAC_TCOP_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ATL/EPAC_TCOP-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NIO_TCOP_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIO_TCOP-41">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SWIO_TCOP_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SWIO_TCOP-42">[42]</a></sup> However, standards vary from basin to basin with some tropical depressions named in the Western Pacific, while tropical cyclones have to have a significant amount of <a href="/wiki/Gale" title="Gale">gale</a>-force winds occurring around the center before they are named within the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SWIO_TCOP_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SWIO_TCOP-42">[42]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPAC_TCOP-43">[43]</a></sup> The names of significant tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Australian region are retired from the naming lists and replaced with another name.<sup id="cite_ref-ATL/EPAC_TCOP_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ATL/EPAC_TCOP-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WPAC_TCOP_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPAC_TCOP-40">[40]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPAC_TCOP-43">[43]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(10)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Notable_tropical_cyclones">Notable tropical cyclones</span></h2><div class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10">
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_notable_tropical_cyclones" class="mw-redirect" title="List of notable tropical cyclones">List of notable tropical cyclones</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Atlantic_hurricanes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Atlantic hurricanes">List of Atlantic hurricanes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Pacific_hurricanes" title="List of Pacific hurricanes">List of Pacific hurricanes</a></div>
<p>Tropical cyclones that cause extreme destruction are rare, although when they occur, they can cause great amounts of damage or thousands of fatalities. The <a href="/wiki/1970_Bhola_cyclone" title="1970 Bhola cyclone">1970 Bhola cyclone</a> is the deadliest tropical cyclone on record, killing more than 300,000 people<sup id="cite_ref-faqe9_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faqe9-129">[129]</a></sup> and potentially as many as 1 million<sup id="cite_ref-1970death_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1970death-130">[130]</a></sup> after striking the densely populated <a href="/wiki/Ganges_Delta" title="Ganges Delta">Ganges Delta</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> on November 13, 1970. Its powerful storm surge was responsible for the high death toll.<sup id="cite_ref-faqe9_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faqe9-129">[129]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/List_of_North_Indian_Ocean_cyclone_seasons" class="mw-redirect" title="List of North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons">North Indian cyclone basin</a> has historically been the deadliest basin.<sup id="cite_ref-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005_97-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005-97">[97]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Deadliest_cyclone_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deadliest_cyclone-131">[131]</a></sup> Elsewhere, <a href="/wiki/Typhoon_Nina_(1975)" title="Typhoon Nina (1975)">Typhoon Nina</a> killed nearly 100,000 in China in 1975 due to a <a href="/wiki/100-year_flood" title="100-year flood">100-year flood</a> that caused 62 dams including the <a href="/wiki/Banqiao_Dam" title="Banqiao Dam">Banqiao Dam</a> to fail.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Hurricane_of_1780" title="Great Hurricane of 1780">Great Hurricane of 1780</a> is the deadliest <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic hurricane">North Atlantic hurricane</a> on record, killing about 22,000 people in the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NHCPastDeadly_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHCPastDeadly-133">[133]</a></sup> A tropical cyclone does not need to be particularly strong to cause memorable damage, primarily if the deaths are from rainfall or mudslides. <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Storm_Thelma" title="Tropical Storm Thelma">Tropical Storm Thelma</a> in November 1991 killed thousands in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-JTWCThelma_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JTWCThelma-134">[134]</a></sup> although the strongest typhoon to ever make landfall on record was <a href="/wiki/Typhoon_Haiyan" title="Typhoon Haiyan">Typhoon Haiyan</a> on November 2013, causing widespread devastation in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Visayas" title="Eastern Visayas">Eastern Visayas</a> and killing at least 6,300 people in that country alone. In 1982, the unnamed tropical depression that eventually became <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Paul_(1982)" title="Hurricane Paul (1982)">Hurricane Paul</a> killed around 1,000 people in <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MWR_Paul_1982_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MWR_Paul_1982-135">[135]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Harvey" title="Hurricane Harvey">Hurricane Harvey</a> is estimated as the costliest tropical cyclone worldwide,<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup> with an estimated $198.6 billion in damages (2017 <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">USD</a>). Harvey killed at least 90 people in August 2017 after making <a href="/wiki/Landfall" title="Landfall">landfall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> as a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Category_4_hurricanes#List_of_Category_4_hurricanes#2001-present" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Category 4 hurricanes">low-end Category 4 hurricane</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> is estimated as the second-costliest tropical cyclone worldwide,<sup id="cite_ref-epi_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-epi-137">[137]</a></sup> causing $81.2 billion in property damage (2008 USD)<sup id="cite_ref-KatrinaTCR_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KatrinaTCR-138">[138]</a></sup> with overall damage estimates exceeding $100 billion (2005 USD).<sup id="cite_ref-epi_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-epi-137">[137]</a></sup> Katrina killed at least 1,836 people after striking <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_scales" title="Tropical cyclone scales">major hurricane</a> in August 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-KatrinaTCR_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KatrinaTCR-138">[138]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Sandy" title="Hurricane Sandy">Hurricane Sandy</a> is the third most destructive tropical cyclone in U.S history, with damage totaling $68 billion (2012 USD), and with damage costs at $37.5 billion (2012 USD), <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Ike" title="Hurricane Ike">Hurricane Ike</a> is the fourth most destructive tropical cyclone in U.S history. The <a href="/wiki/Galveston_Hurricane_of_1900" class="mw-redirect" title="Galveston Hurricane of 1900">Galveston Hurricane of 1900</a> is the deadliest natural disaster in the United States, killing an estimated 6,000 to 12,000 people in <a href="/wiki/Galveston,_Texas" title="Galveston, Texas">Galveston, Texas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Mitch" title="Hurricane Mitch">Hurricane Mitch</a> caused more than 10,000 fatalities in <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>, making it the second deadliest Atlantic hurricane in history. <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Iniki" title="Hurricane Iniki">Hurricane Iniki</a> in 1992 was the most powerful storm to strike <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> in recorded history, hitting <a href="/wiki/Kauai" title="Kauai">Kauai</a> as a Category 4 hurricane, killing six people, and causing U.S. $3 billion in damage.<sup id="cite_ref-InikiTCR_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InikiTCR-140">[140]</a></sup> Kauai was also struck by Hurricanes Dot (1959) and Iwa (1982) (see <a href="/wiki/List_of_Hawaii_hurricanes" title="List of Hawaii hurricanes">List of Hawaii hurricanes</a>). Other destructive Eastern <a href="/wiki/Pacific_hurricane" title="Pacific hurricane">Pacific hurricanes</a> include <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Pauline" title="Hurricane Pauline">Pauline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Kenna" title="Hurricane Kenna">Kenna</a>, both causing severe damage after striking <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> as major hurricanes.<sup id="cite_ref-PaulineTCR_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PaulineTCR-141">[141]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KennaTCR_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KennaTCR-142">[142]</a></sup> In March 2004, <a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Gafilo" title="Cyclone Gafilo">Cyclone Gafilo</a> struck northeastern <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> as a powerful cyclone, killing 74, affecting more than 200,000, and becoming the worst cyclone to affect the nation for more than 20 years.<sup id="cite_ref-gafilo_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gafilo-143">[143]</a></sup></p>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:290px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Typhoonsizes.jpg" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Typhoonsizes.jpg" width="288" height="180" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="180"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 288px;height: 180px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Typhoonsizes.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="288" data-height="180" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">The relative sizes of <a href="/wiki/Typhoon_Tip" title="Typhoon Tip">Typhoon Tip</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Tracy" title="Cyclone Tracy">Cyclone Tracy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></div>
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<p>The most intense storm on record was <a href="/wiki/Typhoon_Tip" title="Typhoon Tip">Typhoon Tip</a> in the northwestern Pacific Ocean in 1979, which reached a minimum pressure of 870 hectopascals (25.69 inHg) and maximum sustained wind speeds of 165 knots (85 m/s) or 190 miles per hour (310 km/h).<sup id="cite_ref-jtwc_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jtwc-144">[144]</a></sup> The highest maximum sustained wind speed ever recorded was 185 knots (95 m/s) or 215 miles per hour (345 km/h) in <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Patricia" title="Hurricane Patricia">Hurricane Patricia</a> in 2015, which is the most intense cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Typhoon_Nancy_(1961)" title="Typhoon Nancy (1961)">Typhoon Nancy</a> in 1961 also had recorded wind speeds of 185 knots (95 m/s) or 215 miles per hour (346 km/h), but recent research indicates that wind speeds from the 1940s to the 1960s were gauged too high, and this is no longer considered the storm with the highest wind speeds on record.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E1_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_E1-122">[122]</a></sup> Likewise, a surface-level gust caused by <a href="/wiki/Typhoon_Paka" title="Typhoon Paka">Typhoon Paka</a> on <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> in late 1997 was recorded at 205 knots (105 m/s) or 235 miles per hour (378 km/h). Had it been confirmed, it would be the strongest non-<a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornadic</a> wind ever recorded on the Earth's surface, but the reading had to be discarded since the <a href="/wiki/Anemometer" title="Anemometer">anemometer</a> was damaged by the storm.<sup id="cite_ref-NWSPaka_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NWSPaka-146">[146]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a> established Barrow Island as the location of the highest non-tornado related wind gust at 408 km/h (253 mph).<sup id="cite_ref-wmo.int_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wmo.int-147">[147]</a></sup> The gust occurred on April 10, 1996, during <a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Olivia" title="Cyclone Olivia">Severe Tropical Cyclone Olivia</a> and is documented in the Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Journal.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></sup> In addition to being the most intense tropical cyclone on record based on pressure, Tip was the largest cyclone on record, with tropical storm-force winds 2,170 kilometres (1,350 mi) in diameter. The smallest storm on record, <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Storm_Marco_(2008)" title="Tropical Storm Marco (2008)">Tropical Storm Marco</a>, formed during October 2008, and made landfall in <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>. Marco generated tropical storm-force winds only 37 kilometres (23 mi) in diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-FAQ_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAQ-149">[149]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_John_(1994)" title="Hurricane John (1994)">Hurricane John</a> is the longest-lasting tropical cyclone on record, lasting 31 days in <a href="/wiki/1994_Pacific_hurricane_season" title="1994 Pacific hurricane season">1994</a>. Before the advent of satellite imagery in 1961, however, many tropical cyclones were underestimated in their durations.<sup id="cite_ref-john94_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-john94-150">[150]</a></sup> John is also the longest-tracked tropical cyclone in the Northern Hemisphere on record, which had a path of 8,250 mi (13,280 km).<sup id="cite_ref-faqe7_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faqe7-151">[151]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Rewa" title="Cyclone Rewa">Cyclone Rewa</a> of the <a href="/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394_South_Pacific_cyclone_season" title="1993–94 South Pacific cyclone season">1993–94 South Pacific</a> and <a href="/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394_Australian_region_cyclone_season" title="1993–94 Australian region cyclone season">Australian region</a> cyclone seasons had one of the longest tracks observed within the Southern Hemisphere, traveling a distance of over 5,545 mi (8,920 km) during December 1993 and January 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-faqe7_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faqe7-151">[151]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(11)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span id="Changes_caused_by_El_Ni.C3.B1o.E2.80.93Southern_Oscillation"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Changes_caused_by_El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation">Changes caused by El Niño–Southern Oscillation</span></h2><div class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11">
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></div>
<p>Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>, then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the <a href="/wiki/Westerlies" title="Westerlies">Westerlies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></sup> When the <a href="/wiki/Subtropical_ridge" title="Subtropical ridge">subtropical ridge</a> position shifts due to El Niño, so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks. Areas west of <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> tend to experience much fewer September–November tropical cyclone impacts during <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> and neutral years. During El Niño years, the break in the subtropical ridge tends to lie near <a href="/wiki/130th_meridian_east" title="130th meridian east">130°E</a> which would favor the Japanese archipelago.<sup id="cite_ref-China_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China-153">[153]</a></sup> During El Niño years, <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>'s chance of a tropical cyclone impact is one-third more likely than of the long-term average.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></sup> The tropical Atlantic Ocean experiences depressed activity due to increased vertical <a href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">wind shear</a> across the region during El Niño years.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></sup> During <a href="/wiki/La_Ni%C3%B1a" title="La Niña">La Niña</a> years, the formation of tropical cyclones, along with the subtropical ridge position, shifts westward across the western Pacific Ocean, which increases the landfall threat to <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and much greater intensity in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-China_153-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China-153">[153]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(12)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Long-term_activity_trends">Long-term activity trends</span></h2><div class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12">
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane_reanalysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic hurricane reanalysis">Atlantic hurricane reanalysis</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:NOAA_ACE_index_1950-2004_RGB.svg" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/NOAA_ACE_index_1950-2004_RGB.svg/250px-NOAA_ACE_index_1950-2004_RGB.svg.png" width="250" height="162" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="679" data-file-height="440"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 162px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/NOAA_ACE_index_1950-2004_RGB.svg/250px-NOAA_ACE_index_1950-2004_RGB.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="162" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/NOAA_ACE_index_1950-2004_RGB.svg/375px-NOAA_ACE_index_1950-2004_RGB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/NOAA_ACE_index_1950-2004_RGB.svg/500px-NOAA_ACE_index_1950-2004_RGB.svg.png 2x" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
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Atlantic Multidecadal Cycle since 1950, using <a href="/wiki/Accumulated_cyclone_energy" title="Accumulated cyclone energy">accumulated cyclone energy</a> (ACE)</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Amo_timeseries_1856-present.svg" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Amo_timeseries_1856-present.svg/250px-Amo_timeseries_1856-present.svg.png" width="250" height="138" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="372"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 138px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Amo_timeseries_1856-present.svg/250px-Amo_timeseries_1856-present.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="138" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Amo_timeseries_1856-present.svg/375px-Amo_timeseries_1856-present.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Amo_timeseries_1856-present.svg/500px-Amo_timeseries_1856-present.svg.png 2x" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
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Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation Timeseries, 1856–2013</div>
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<p>While the number of storms in the Atlantic has increased since 1995, there is no obvious global trend; the annual number of tropical cyclones worldwide remains about 87 ± 10 (Between 77 and 97 tropical cyclones annually). However, the ability of climatologists to make long-term data analysis in certain basins is limited by the lack of reliable historical data in some basins, primarily in the Southern Hemisphere,<sup id="cite_ref-Landsea_Trends_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landsea_Trends-156">[156]</a></sup> while noting that a significant downward trend in tropical cyclone numbers has been identified for the region near Australia (based on high quality data and accounting for the influence of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation).<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></sup> In spite of that, there is some evidence that the intensity of hurricanes is increasing. <a href="/wiki/Kerry_Emanuel" title="Kerry Emanuel">Kerry Emanuel</a> stated, "Records of hurricane activity worldwide show an upswing of both the maximum wind speed in and the duration of hurricanes. The energy released by the average hurricane (again considering all hurricanes worldwide) seems to have increased by around 70% in the past 30 years or so, corresponding to about a 15% increase in the maximum wind speed and a 60% increase in storm lifetime."<sup id="cite_ref-EmanuelHomepage_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EmanuelHomepage-158">[158]</a></sup></p>
<p>Atlantic storms are becoming more destructive financially, as evidenced by the fact that five of the ten <a href="/wiki/List_of_costliest_Atlantic_hurricanes#Listed_by_cost_(United_States_only)" title="List of costliest Atlantic hurricanes">most expensive storms in United States history</a> have occurred since 1990. According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a>, "recent increase in societal impact from tropical cyclones has been caused largely by rising concentrations of population and infrastructure in coastal regions."<sup id="cite_ref-WMO-IWTC_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WMO-IWTC-159">[159]</a></sup> Political scientist <a href="/wiki/Roger_A._Pielke_Jr." title="Roger A. Pielke Jr.">Pielke</a> <i>et al.</i> (2008) normalized mainland US hurricane damage from 1900–2005 to 2005 values and found no remaining trend of increasing absolute damage. The 1970s and 1980s were notable because of the extremely low amounts of damage compared to other decades. The decade 1996–2005 was the second most damaging among the past 11 decades, with only the decade 1926–1935 surpassing its costs.</p>
<p>Often in part because of the threat of hurricanes, many coastal regions had sparse population between major ports until the advent of automobile tourism; therefore, the most severe portions of hurricanes striking the coast may have gone unmeasured in some instances. The combined effects of ship destruction and remote landfall severely limit the number of intense hurricanes in the official record before the era of hurricane reconnaissance aircraft and satellite meteorology. Although the record shows a distinct increase in the number and strength of intense hurricanes, therefore, experts regard the early data as suspect.<sup id="cite_ref-BOM_TC_Guide_1.3_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BOM_TC_Guide_1.3-160">[160]</a></sup></p>
<p>The number and strength of Atlantic hurricanes may undergo a 50–70 year cycle, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Multidecadal_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation">Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation</a>. Nyberg <i>et al.</i> reconstructed Atlantic major hurricane activity back to the early 18th century and found five periods averaging 3–5 major hurricanes per year and lasting 40–60 years, and six other averaging 1.5–2.5 major hurricanes per year and lasting 10–20 years. These periods are associated with the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Throughout, a decadal oscillation related to solar irradiance was responsible for enhancing/dampening the number of major hurricanes by 1–2 per year.<sup id="cite_ref-Nyberg2005_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nyberg2005-161">[161]</a></sup></p>
<p>Although more common since 1995, few above-normal hurricane seasons occurred during 1970–94.<sup id="cite_ref-RMS_activity_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RMS_activity-162">[162]</a></sup> Destructive hurricanes struck frequently from 1926 to 1960, including many major <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> hurricanes. Twenty-one Atlantic tropical storms formed in <a href="/wiki/1933_Atlantic_hurricane_season" title="1933 Atlantic hurricane season">1933</a>, a record only recently exceeded in <a href="/wiki/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season" title="2005 Atlantic hurricane season">2005</a>, which saw 28 storms. Tropical hurricanes occurred infrequently during the seasons of 1900–25; however, many intense storms formed during 1870–99. During the <a href="/wiki/1887_Atlantic_hurricane_season" title="1887 Atlantic hurricane season">1887 season</a>, 19 tropical storms formed, of which a record 4 occurred after November 1 and 11 strengthened into hurricanes. Few hurricanes occurred in the 1840s to 1860s; however, many struck in the early 19th century, including an <a href="/wiki/1821_Norfolk_and_Long_Island_hurricane" title="1821 Norfolk and Long Island hurricane">1821 storm</a> that made a direct hit on <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. Some historical weather experts say these storms may have been as high as <a href="/wiki/Saffir-Simpson_Hurricane_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale">Category 4</a> in strength.<sup id="cite_ref-Columbia_CCSR_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Columbia_CCSR-163">[163]</a></sup></p>
<p>These active hurricane seasons predated satellite coverage of the Atlantic basin. Before the satellite era began in 1960, tropical storms or hurricanes went undetected unless a reconnaissance aircraft encountered one, a ship reported a voyage through the storm, or a storm hit land in a populated area.<sup id="cite_ref-BOM_TC_Guide_1.3_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BOM_TC_Guide_1.3-160">[160]</a></sup></p>
<p>Proxy records based on <a href="/wiki/Paleotempestology" title="Paleotempestology">paleotempestological</a> research have revealed that major hurricane activity along the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> coast varies on timescales of centuries to millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu1999_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu1999-164">[164]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LiuFearn2000_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LiuFearn2000-165">[165]</a></sup> Few major hurricanes struck the Gulf coast during 3000–1400 BC and again during the most recent millennium. These quiescent intervals were separated by a hyperactive period during 1400 BC and 1000 AD, when the Gulf coast was struck frequently by catastrophic hurricanes and their landfall probabilities increased by 3–5 times. This millennial-scale variability has been attributed to long-term shifts in the position of the <a href="/wiki/Azores_High" title="Azores High">Azores High</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-LiuFearn2000_165-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LiuFearn2000-165">[165]</a></sup> which may also be linked to changes in the strength of the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_oscillation" title="North Atlantic oscillation">North Atlantic oscillation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></sup></p>
<p>According to the Azores High hypothesis, an anti-phase pattern is expected to exist between the Gulf of Mexico coast and the Atlantic coast. During the quiescent periods, a more northeasterly position of the Azores High would result in more hurricanes being steered towards the Atlantic coast. During the hyperactive period, more hurricanes were steered towards the Gulf coast as the Azores High was shifted to a more southwesterly position near the Caribbean. Such a displacement of the Azores High is consistent with paleoclimatic evidence that shows an abrupt onset of a drier climate in <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> around 3200 <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating"><sup>14</sup>C</a> years BP,<sup id="cite_ref-Higuera-Gundy1999_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Higuera-Gundy1999-167">[167]</a></sup> and a change towards more humid conditions in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> during the late-Holocene as more moisture was pumped up the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippi Valley">Mississippi Valley</a> through the Gulf coast. Preliminary data from the northern Atlantic coast seem to support the Azores High hypothesis. A 3000-year proxy record from a coastal lake in <a href="/wiki/Cape_Cod" title="Cape Cod">Cape Cod</a> suggests that hurricane activity increased significantly during the past 500–1000 years, just as the Gulf coast was amid a quiescent period of the last millennium.</p>
<p><span id="Global_warming"></span></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(13)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Climate_change">Climate change</span></h2><div class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13">
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></div>
<p>The 2007 <a href="/wiki/IPCC" class="mw-redirect" title="IPCC">IPCC</a> report noted many observed changes in the climate, including atmospheric composition, global average temperatures, ocean conditions, and others. The report concluded the observed increase in tropical cyclone intensity is larger than climate models predict. In addition, the report considered that it is likely that storm intensity will continue to increase through the 21st century, and declared it more likely than not that there has been some human contribution to the increases in tropical cyclone intensity.<sup id="cite_ref-ipcc_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ipcc-168">[168]</a></sup></p>
<p>P.J. Webster and others published in 2005 an article in <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i> examining the "changes in tropical cyclone number, duration, and intensity" over the past 35 years, the period when satellite data has been available. Their main finding was although the number of cyclones decreased throughout the planet excluding the north <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, there was a great increase in the number and proportion of very strong cyclones.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_et_al._2005_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_et_al._2005-169">[169]</a></sup></p>
<p>According to 2006 studies by the <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>, "the strongest hurricanes in the present climate may be upstaged by even more intense hurricanes over the next century as the earth's climate is warmed by increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere".<sup id="cite_ref-GFDL_warming_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GFDL_warming-170">[170]</a></sup></p>
<p>Studies published since 2008, by <a href="/wiki/Kerry_Emanuel" title="Kerry Emanuel">Kerry Emanuel</a> from MIT, indicate that <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" title="Global warming">global warming</a> is likely to increase the intensity but decrease the frequency of hurricane and cyclone activity.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></sup> In an article in <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>, Kerry Emanuel stated that potential hurricane destructiveness, a measure combining hurricane strength, duration, and frequency, "is highly correlated with tropical sea surface temperature, reflecting well-documented climate signals, including <a href="/wiki/Climate_oscillation" title="Climate oscillation">multidecadal oscillations</a> in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, and global warming". Emanuel predicted "a substantial increase in hurricane-related losses in the twenty-first century".<sup id="cite_ref-Nature_Emanuel_2005_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nature_Emanuel_2005-172">[172]</a></sup></p>
<p>Research reported in the September 3, 2008 issue of <i>Nature</i> found that the strongest tropical cyclones are getting stronger, in particular over the North Atlantic and Indian oceans. Wind speeds for the strongest tropical storms increased from an average of 225 km/h (140 mph) in 1981 to 251 km/h (156 mph) in 2006, while the ocean temperature, averaged globally over all the regions where tropical cyclones form, increased from 28.2 °C (82.8 °F) to 28.5 °C (83.3 °F) during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a></sup></p>
<p>A 2017 study looked at compounding effects from floods, storm surge, and terrestrial flooding (rivers), and projects an increase <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming" title="Effects of global warming">due to global warming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(14)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Related_cyclone_types">Related cyclone types</span></h2><div class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14">
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustav_09_sep_2002_1805Z.jpg" class="image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Gustav_09_sep_2002_1805Z.jpg/250px-Gustav_09_sep_2002_1805Z.jpg" width="250" height="250" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="6000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 250px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Gustav_09_sep_2002_1805Z.jpg/250px-Gustav_09_sep_2002_1805Z.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="250" data-height="250" data-class="thumbimage"> </span></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustav_09_sep_2002_1805Z.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>
Gustav on September 9, 2002, the first system to be given a name as a subtropical cyclone</div>
</div>
</div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">Cyclone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">Extratropical cyclone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Subtropical_cyclone" title="Subtropical cyclone">Subtropical cyclone</a></div>
<p>In addition to tropical cyclones, there are two other classes of cyclones within the spectrum of cyclone types. These kinds of cyclones, known as <a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">extratropical cyclones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subtropical_cyclone" title="Subtropical cyclone">subtropical cyclones</a>, can be stages a tropical cyclone passes through during its <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclogenesis" title="Tropical cyclogenesis">formation</a> or dissipation.<sup id="cite_ref-IWTC5_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IWTC5-177">[177]</a></sup> An <i>extratropical cyclone</i> is a storm that derives energy from horizontal temperature differences, which are typical in higher latitudes. A tropical cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source changes from heat released by condensation to differences in temperature between air masses; although not as frequently, an extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm, and from there into a tropical cyclone.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-178">[178]</a></sup> From space, extratropical storms have a characteristic "<a href="/wiki/Comma_(punctuation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comma (punctuation)">comma</a>-shaped" cloud pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-L14_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L14-179">[179]</a></sup> Extratropical cyclones can also be dangerous when their low-pressure centers cause powerful winds and high seas.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a></sup></p>
<p>A <i>subtropical cyclone</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">weather</a> system that has some characteristics of a tropical cyclone and some characteristics of an extratropical cyclone. They can form in a wide band of <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudes</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> to 50°. Although subtropical storms rarely have hurricane-force winds, they may become tropical in nature as their cores warm.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A6_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A6-181">[181]</a></sup> From an operational standpoint, a tropical cyclone is usually not considered to become subtropical during its extratropical transition.<sup id="cite_ref-PadgetDecember2000_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PadgetDecember2000-182">[182]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(15)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Popular_culture">Popular culture</span></h2><div class="mf-section-15 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-15">
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_in_popular_culture" title="Tropical cyclones in popular culture">Tropical cyclones in popular culture</a></div>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>, tropical cyclones have made several appearances in different types of media, including films, books, television, music, and <a href="/wiki/Electronic_game" title="Electronic game">electronic games</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_J4_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_J4-183">[183]</a></sup> These media often portray tropical cyclones that are either entirely <a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">fictional</a> or based on real events.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_J4_183-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_J4-183">[183]</a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/George_Rippey_Stewart" class="mw-redirect" title="George Rippey Stewart">George Rippey Stewart</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Storm_(novel)" title="Storm (novel)">Storm</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Best-seller" class="mw-redirect" title="Best-seller">best-seller</a> published in 1941, is thought to have influenced meteorologists on their decision to assign female names to Pacific tropical cyclones.<sup id="cite_ref-Mahina_128-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahina-128">[128]</a></sup> Another example is the hurricane in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Perfect_Storm_(film)" title="The Perfect Storm (film)">The Perfect Storm</a></i>, which describes the sinking of the <i><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Gail" title="Andrea Gail">Andrea Gail</a></i> by the <a href="/wiki/1991_Perfect_Storm" title="1991 Perfect Storm">1991 Perfect Storm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1991_Perfect_Storm_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1991_Perfect_Storm-184">[184]</a></sup> Hypothetical hurricanes have been featured in parts of the plots of series such as <i><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Neddy" title="Hurricane Neddy">The Simpsons</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Invasion_(U.S._TV_series)" title="Invasion (U.S. TV series)">Invasion</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/One_If_by_Clam,_Two_If_by_Sea" title="One If by Clam, Two If by Sea">Family Guy</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Checks" title="The Checks">Seinfeld</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Dawson%27s_Creek" title="Dawson's Creek">Dawson's Creek</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Burn_Notice" title="Burn Notice">Burn Notice</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/CSI:_Miami_(season_2)" title="CSI: Miami (season 2)">CSI: Miami</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_J4_183-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_J4-183">[183]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-simpsons_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simpsons-185">[185]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-familyguy_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-familyguy-186">[186]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dawsons_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawsons-187">[187]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-seinfeld_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seinfeld-188">[188]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CSIMiami_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSIMiami-189">[189]</a></sup> The 2004 film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Day_After_Tomorrow" title="The Day After Tomorrow">The Day After Tomorrow</a></i> includes several mentions of actual tropical cyclones and features fantastical "hurricane-like", albeit non-tropical, Arctic storms.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a></sup></p>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(16)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2><div class="mf-section-16 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-16">
<div role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portal plainlist tright" style="margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px">
<ul style="display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold"><li style="display:table-row"><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG/32px-Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG" width="32" height="21" class="noviewer" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2004"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 32px;height: 21px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG/32px-Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG" data-alt="" data-width="32" data-height="21" data-class="noviewer"> </span></span><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Tropical_cyclones" title="Portal:Tropical cyclones">Tropical cyclones portal</a></span></li>
</ul></div>
<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">Cyclone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_preparedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Disaster preparedness">Disaster preparedness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Atlantic_tropical_cyclone_warnings" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Atlantic tropical cyclone warnings">History of Atlantic tropical cyclone warnings</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/HURDAT" title="HURDAT">HURDAT</a> (online database)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Alley" title="Hurricane Alley">Hurricane Alley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Atlantic_hurricanes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Atlantic hurricanes">List of Atlantic hurricanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Category_4_Atlantic_hurricanes" title="List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes">List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Category_4_Pacific_hurricanes" title="List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes">List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Category_5_Atlantic_hurricanes" title="List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes">List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Category_5_Pacific_hurricanes" title="List of Category 5 Pacific hurricanes">List of Category 5 Pacific hurricanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_most_intense_tropical_cyclones" title="List of the most intense tropical cyclones">List of the most intense tropical cyclones</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tropical_cyclone_records" title="List of tropical cyclone records">List of tropical cyclone records</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wettest_tropical_cyclones_by_country" title="List of wettest tropical cyclones by country">List of wettest tropical cyclones by country</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_tropical_cyclones" title="Outline of tropical cyclones">Outline of tropical cyclones</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_flow#Tropical_cyclones" title="Secondary flow">Secondary flow in tropical cyclones</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_scales" title="Tropical cyclone scales">Tropical cyclone scales</a></li>
</ul></div>
<p><b>Forecasting and preparation</b></p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophe_modeling" title="Catastrophe modeling">Catastrophe modeling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_engineering" title="Hurricane engineering">Hurricane engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_preparedness" title="Hurricane preparedness">Hurricane preparedness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane-proof_building" title="Hurricane-proof building">Hurricane-proof building</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_watches_and_warnings" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical cyclone watches and warnings">Tropical cyclone watches and warnings</a></li>
</ul><p><b>Tropical cyclone seasons</b></p>
<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 25em; -webkit-column-width: 25em; column-width: 25em;">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane_season" title="Atlantic hurricane season">Atlantic hurricane season</a> (<a href="/wiki/2018_Atlantic_hurricane_season" title="2018 Atlantic hurricane season">current</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_hurricane_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific hurricane season">Pacific hurricane season</a> (<a href="/wiki/2018_Pacific_hurricane_season" title="2018 Pacific hurricane season">current</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_typhoon_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific typhoon season">Pacific typhoon season</a> (<a href="/wiki/2018_Pacific_typhoon_season" title="2018 Pacific typhoon season">current</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/North_Indian_Ocean_tropical_cyclone" title="North Indian Ocean tropical cyclone">North Indian Ocean tropical cyclone</a> (<a href="/wiki/2018_North_Indian_Ocean_cyclone_season" title="2018 North Indian Ocean cyclone season">current</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/South-West_Indian_Ocean_tropical_cyclone" title="South-West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone">South-West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone</a> (<a href="/wiki/2017-18_South-West_Indian_Ocean_cyclone_season" class="mw-redirect" title="2017-18 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season">current</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_region_tropical_cyclone" title="Australian region tropical cyclone">Australian region tropical cyclone</a> (<a href="/wiki/2017-18_Australian_region_cyclone_season" class="mw-redirect" title="2017-18 Australian region cyclone season">current</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_tropical_cyclone" title="South Pacific tropical cyclone">South Pacific tropical cyclone</a> (<a href="/wiki/2017-18_South_Pacific_cyclone_season" class="mw-redirect" title="2017-18 South Pacific cyclone season">current</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_tropical_cyclone" title="South Atlantic tropical cyclone">South Atlantic tropical cyclone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_tropical-like_cyclone" title="Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone">Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone</a></li>
</ul></div>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(17)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2><div class="mf-section-17 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-17">
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references"><li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/english/hurricane#hurricane">"hurricane"</a>. Oxford dictionary<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 1,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=hurricane&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+dictionary&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fus%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Fhurricane%23hurricane&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hurricane">"Hurricane - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 1,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Hurricane+-+Definition+and+More+from+the+Free+Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fhurricane&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/hurricane">"Definition of "hurricane" - Collins English Dictionary"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 1,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Definition+of+%22hurricane%22+-+Collins+English+Dictionary&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fhurricane&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-HCT-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HCT_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HCT_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/cyclone.html">"What is the difference between a hurricane, a cyclone, and a typhoon?"</a>. <i>OCEAN FACTS</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Ocean_Service" title="National Ocean Service">National Ocean Service</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 24,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=OCEAN+FACTS&amp;rft.atitle=What+is+the+difference+between+a+hurricane%2C+a+cyclone%2C+and+a+typhoon%3F&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foceanservice.noaa.gov%2Ffacts%2Fcyclone.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-OED-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OED_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com.research.aadl.org/view/Entry/46537?redirectedFrom=Cyclone+#eid">"Oxford English Dictionary"</a>. <i>OED Online</i>. Oxford University Press. June 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 10,</span> 2017</span>. <q>a general term for all storms or atmospheric disturbances in which the wind has a circular or whirling course.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=OED+Online&amp;rft.atitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&amp;rft.date=2017-06&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com.research.aadl.org%2Fview%2FEntry%2F46537%3FredirectedFrom%3DCyclone%2B%23eid&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-BAMS_Zhang_1988-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BAMS_Zhang_1988_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BAMS_Zhang_1988_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Henderson-Sellers, A.; Zhang, H.; Berz, G.; Emanuel, K.; Gray, W.; Landsea, C.; Holland, G.; Lighthill, J.; Shieh, S. L.; Webster, P.; McGuffie, K. (1998). "Tropical Cyclones and Global Climate Change: A Post-IPCC Assessment". <i>Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</i>. <b>79</b>: 19–38. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998BAMS...79...19H">1998BAMS...79...19H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0477%281998%29079%3C0019%3ATCAGCC%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0477(1998)079&lt;0019:TCAGCC&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Meteorological+Society&amp;rft.atitle=Tropical+Cyclones+and+Global+Climate+Change%3A+A+Post-IPCC+Assessment&amp;rft.volume=79&amp;rft.pages=19-38&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0477%281998%29079%3C0019%3ATCAGCC%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998BAMS...79...19H&amp;rft.aulast=Henderson-Sellers&amp;rft.aufirst=A.&amp;rft.au=Zhang%2C+H.&amp;rft.au=Berz%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Emanuel%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Gray%2C+W.&amp;rft.au=Landsea%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Holland%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Lighthill%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Shieh%2C+S.+L.&amp;rft.au=Webster%2C+P.&amp;rft.au=McGuffie%2C+K.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ABC_pressures-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ABC_pressures_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Symonds, Steve (November 17, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011194541/http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s989385.htm">"Highs and Lows"</a>. <i>Wild Weather</i>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s989385.htm">the original</a> on October 11, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 23,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Wild+Weather&amp;rft.atitle=Highs+and+Lows&amp;rft.date=2003-11-17&amp;rft.au=Symonds%2C+Steve&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnorthcoast%2Fstories%2Fs989385.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A7-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A7_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanographic_and_Meteorological_Laboratory" title="Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory</a>; Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070209121005/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A7.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: What is an extra-tropical cyclone?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A7.html">the original</a> on February 9, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 23,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+What+is+an+extra-tropical+cyclone%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory&amp;rft.au=Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FA7.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-NHC_glossary-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NHC_glossary_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHC_glossary_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHC_glossary_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHC_glossary_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">National Hurricane Center (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutgloss.shtml">"Glossary of NHC/TPC Terms"</a>. United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 30,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Glossary+of+NHC%2FTPC+Terms&amp;rft.pub=United+States+National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.au=National+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhc.noaa.gov%2Faboutgloss.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-cirrus-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cirrus_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Marine Meteorology Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/sat_training/nexsat/cirrus/NexSat_Cirrus.pdf">"Cirrus Cloud Detection"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Satellite Product Tutorials</i>. Monterey, CA: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Research_Laboratory" title="United States Naval Research Laboratory">United States Naval Research Laboratory</a>. p. 1<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Satellite+Product+Tutorials&amp;rft.atitle=Cirrus+Cloud+Detection&amp;rft.pages=1&amp;rft.au=Marine+Meteorology+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrlmry.navy.mil%2Fsat_training%2Fnexsat%2Fcirrus%2FNexSat_Cirrus.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-MWR_Frank_1977-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MWR_Frank_1977_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MWR_Frank_1977_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Frank, W. M. (1977). "The structure and energetics of the tropical cyclone I. Storm structure". <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Weather_Review" title="Monthly Weather Review">Monthly Weather Review</a></i>. <b>105</b> (9): 1119–1135. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977MWRv..105.1119F">1977MWRv..105.1119F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281977%29105%3C1119%3ATSAEOT%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(1977)105&lt;1119:TSAEOT&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Monthly+Weather+Review&amp;rft.atitle=The+structure+and+energetics+of+the+tropical+cyclone+I.+Storm+structure&amp;rft.volume=105&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=1119-1135&amp;rft.date=1977&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%281977%29105%3C1119%3ATSAEOT%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977MWRv..105.1119F&amp;rft.au=Frank%2C+W.+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-JetStream_structure-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JetStream_structure_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JetStream_structure_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a> (October 19, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/tropics/tc_structure.htm">"Tropical Cyclone Structure"</a>. <i>JetStream — An Online School for Weather</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_%26_Atmospheric_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="National Oceanic &amp; Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic &amp; Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=JetStream+%E2%80%94+An+Online+School+for+Weather&amp;rft.atitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Structure&amp;rft.date=2005-10-19&amp;rft.au=National+Weather+Service&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Fjetstream%2Ftropics%2Ftc_structure.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-WilmaTCR-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WilmaTCR_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Pasch, Richard J.; Eric S. Blake, Hugh D. Cobb III, and David P. Roberts (September 28, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL252005_Wilma.pdf">"Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Wilma: 15–25 October 2005"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/National_Hurricane_Center" title="National Hurricane Center">National Hurricane Center</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 14,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Report%3A+Hurricane+Wilma%3A+15%E2%80%9325+October+2005&amp;rft.pub=National+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft.date=2006-09-28&amp;rft.aulast=Pasch&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&amp;rft.au=Eric+S.+Blake%2C+Hugh+D.+Cobb+III%2C+and+David+P.+Roberts&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhc.noaa.gov%2Fdata%2Ftcr%2FAL252005_Wilma.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-MWR_1996_AHS_summary-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MWR_1996_AHS_summary_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MWR_1996_AHS_summary_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MWR_1996_AHS_summary_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Annamalai, H.; Slingo, J. M.; Sperber, K. R.; Hodges, K. (1999). "The Mean Evolution and Variability of the Asian Summer Monsoon: Comparison of ECMWF and NCEP–NCAR Reanalyses". <i>Monthly Weather Review</i>. <b>127</b> (6): 1157–1186. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999MWRv..127.1157A">1999MWRv..127.1157A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281999%29127%3C1157%3ATMEAVO%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(1999)127&lt;1157:TMEAVO&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Monthly+Weather+Review&amp;rft.atitle=The+Mean+Evolution+and+Variability+of+the+Asian+Summer+Monsoon%3A+Comparison+of+ECMWF+and+NCEP%E2%80%93NCAR+Reanalyses&amp;rft.volume=127&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=1157-1186&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%281999%29127%3C1157%3ATMEAVO%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999MWRv..127.1157A&amp;rft.aulast=Annamalai&amp;rft.aufirst=H.&amp;rft.au=Slingo%2C+J.+M.&amp;rft.au=Sperber%2C+K.+R.&amp;rft.au=Hodges%2C+K.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CDO_AMS-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CDO_AMS_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/browse?s=c&amp;p=19">"AMS Glossary: C"</a>. <i>Glossary of Meteorology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Allen_Press" title="Allen Press">Allen Press</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 14,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Glossary+of+Meteorology&amp;rft.atitle=AMS+Glossary%3A+C&amp;rft.au=American+Meteorological+Society&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famsglossary.allenpress.com%2Fglossary%2Fbrowse%3Fs%3Dc%26p%3D19&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_D8-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_D8_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061206051303/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/D8.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: What are "concentric eyewall cycles" (or "eyewall replacement cycles") and why do they cause a hurricane's maximum winds to weaken?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/D8.html">the original</a> on December 6, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 14,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+What+are+%22concentric+eyewall+cycles%22+%28or+%22eyewall+replacement+cycles%22%29+and+why+do+they+cause+a+hurricane%27s+maximum+winds+to+weaken%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FD8.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-NWS_Glossary-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NWS_Glossary_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://w1.weather.gov/glossary/index.php?letter=r">"National Weather Service Glossary"</a>. United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 13,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=National+Weather+Service+Glossary&amp;rft.pub=United+States+National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration%27s+National+Weather+Service&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fw1.weather.gov%2Fglossary%2Findex.php%3Fletter%3Dr&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Energetics-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Energetics_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Diana Engle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080527094650/http://www.newmediastudio.org/DataDiscovery/Hurr_ED_Center/Hurr_Structure_Energetics/Hurr_Struct.html">"Hurricane Structure and Energetics"</a>. Data Discovery Hurricane Science Center. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newmediastudio.org/DataDiscovery/Hurr_ED_Center/Hurr_Structure_Energetics/Hurr_Struct.html">the original</a> on May 27, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 26,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Hurricane+Structure+and+Energetics&amp;rft.pub=Data+Discovery+Hurricane+Science+Center&amp;rft.au=Diana+Engle&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newmediastudio.org%2FDataDiscovery%2FHurr_ED_Center%2FHurr_Structure_Energetics%2FHurr_Struct.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-JTWCsize-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JTWCsize_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JTWCsize_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usno.navy.mil/JTWC/frequently-asked-questions-1#tcsize">"Q: What is the average size of a tropical cyclone?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Joint_Typhoon_Warning_Center" title="Joint Typhoon Warning Center">Joint Typhoon Warning Center</a>. 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Q%3A+What+is+the+average+size+of+a+tropical+cyclone%3F&amp;rft.pub=Joint+Typhoon+Warning+Center&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usno.navy.mil%2FJTWC%2Ffrequently-asked-questions-1%23tcsize&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Global-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Global_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110601213941/http://www.cawcr.gov.au/publications/BMRC_archive/tcguide/ch2/ch2_4.htm">"Global Guide to Tropical Cyclone Forecasting: chapter 2: Tropical Cyclone Structure"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Meteorology_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Meteorology (Australia)">Bureau of Meteorology</a>. May 7, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cawcr.gov.au/publications/BMRC_archive/tcguide/ch2/ch2_4.htm">the original</a> on June 1, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 6,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Global+Guide+to+Tropical+Cyclone+Forecasting%3A+chapter+2%3A+Tropical+Cyclone+Structure&amp;rft.pub=Bureau+of+Meteorology&amp;rft.date=2009-05-07&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cawcr.gov.au%2Fpublications%2FBMRC_archive%2Ftcguide%2Fch2%2Fch2_4.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Chavas_Emanuel_GRL-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chavas_Emanuel_GRL_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chavas_Emanuel_GRL_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Chavas, D. R.; Emanuel, K. A. (2010). "A QuikSCAT climatology of tropical cyclone size". <i>Geophysical Research Letters</i>. <b>37</b> (18): n/a. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010GeoRL..3718816C">2010GeoRL..3718816C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1029%2F2010GL044558">10.1029/2010GL044558</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&amp;rft.atitle=A+QuikSCAT+climatology+of+tropical+cyclone+size&amp;rft.volume=37&amp;rft.issue=18&amp;rft.pages=n%2Fa&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2010GL044558&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010GeoRL..3718816C&amp;rft.aulast=Chavas&amp;rft.aufirst=D.+R.&amp;rft.au=Emanuel%2C+K.+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Merrill-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Merrill_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Merrill_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Merrill, Robert T (1984). "A comparison of Large and Small Tropical cyclones". <i>Monthly Weather Review</i>. <a href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</a>. <b>112</b> (7): 1408–1418. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984MWRv..112.1408M">1984MWRv..112.1408M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281984%29112%3C1408%3AACOLAS%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(1984)112&lt;1408:ACOLAS&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Monthly+Weather+Review&amp;rft.atitle=A+comparison+of+Large+and+Small+Tropical+cyclones&amp;rft.volume=112&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=1408-1418&amp;rft.date=1984&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%281984%29112%3C1408%3AACOLAS%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984MWRv..112.1408M&amp;rft.aulast=Merrill&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+T&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-JAS_Emanuel_1986-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JAS_Emanuel_1986_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JAS_Emanuel_1986_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Emanuel, K. A. (1986). "An Air-Sea Interaction Theory for Tropical Cyclones. Part I: Steady-State Maintenance". <i>Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences</i>. <b>43</b> (6): 585–605. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986JAtS...43..585E">1986JAtS...43..585E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%281986%29043%3C0585%3AAASITF%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0469(1986)043&lt;0585:AASITF&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Atmospheric+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=An+Air-Sea+Interaction+Theory+for+Tropical+Cyclones.+Part+I%3A+Steady-State+Maintenance&amp;rft.volume=43&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=585-605&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0469%281986%29043%3C0585%3AAASITF%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986JAtS...43..585E&amp;rft.aulast=Emanuel&amp;rft.aufirst=K.+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-NOAA_Question_of_the_Month-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NOAA_Question_of_the_Month_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NOAA_Question_of_the_Month_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/D7.html">"NOAA FAQ: How much energy does a hurricane release?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_%26_Atmospheric_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="National Oceanic &amp; Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic &amp; Atmospheric Administration</a>. August 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 30,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=NOAA+FAQ%3A+How+much+energy+does+a+hurricane+release%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+%26+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.date=2001-08&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FD7.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-UCAR-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UCAR_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090425013318/http://www.ucar.edu/news/features/hurricanes/index.jsp">"Hurricanes: Keeping an eye on weather's biggest bullies"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_Corporation_for_Atmospheric_Research" title="University Corporation for Atmospheric Research">University Corporation for Atmospheric Research</a>. March 31, 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucar.edu/news/features/hurricanes/index.jsp">the original</a> on April 25, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Hurricanes%3A+Keeping+an+eye+on+weather%27s+biggest+bullies.&amp;rft.pub=University+Corporation+for+Atmospheric+Research&amp;rft.date=2006-03-31&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucar.edu%2Fnews%2Ffeatures%2Fhurricanes%2Findex.jsp&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Barnes, Gary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/ASK/hurricanes.html">"Hurricanes and the equator"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii" title="University of Hawaii">University of Hawaii</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 30,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Hurricanes+and+the+equator&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii&amp;rft.au=Barnes%2C+Gary&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soest.hawaii.edu%2FGG%2FASK%2Fhurricanes.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Bister_Emanuel_1998_MAP-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bister_Emanuel_1998_MAP_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Bister, M.; Emanuel, K. A. (1998). "Dissipative heating and hurricane intensity". <i>Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics</i>. <b>65</b> (3–4): 233–240. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998MAP....65..233B">1998MAP....65..233B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01030791">10.1007/BF01030791</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Meteorology+and+Atmospheric+Physics&amp;rft.atitle=Dissipative+heating+and+hurricane+intensity&amp;rft.volume=65&amp;rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&amp;rft.pages=233-240&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01030791&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998MAP....65..233B&amp;rft.aulast=Bister&amp;rft.aufirst=M.&amp;rft.au=Emanuel%2C+K.+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Emanuel_2000_MWR-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Emanuel_2000_MWR_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Emanuel, K. (2000). "A Statistical Analysis of Tropical Cyclone Intensity". <i>Monthly Weather Review</i>. <b>128</b> (4): 1139–1152. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000MWRv..128.1139E">2000MWRv..128.1139E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%282000%29128%3C1139%3AASAOTC%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(2000)128&lt;1139:ASAOTC&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Monthly+Weather+Review&amp;rft.atitle=A+Statistical+Analysis+of+Tropical+Cyclone+Intensity&amp;rft.volume=128&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=1139-1152&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%282000%29128%3C1139%3AASAOTC%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000MWRv..128.1139E&amp;rft.aulast=Emanuel&amp;rft.aufirst=K.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Knutson_etal_2010_NG-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Knutson_etal_2010_NG_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Knutson, T. R.; McBride, J. L.; Chan, J.; Emanuel, K.; Holland, G.; Landsea, C.; Held, I.; Kossin, J. P.; Srivastava, A. K.; Sugi, M. (2010). "Tropical cyclones and climate change". <i>Nature Geoscience</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 157–163. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010NatGe...3..157K">2010NatGe...3..157K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fngeo779">10.1038/ngeo779</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Geoscience&amp;rft.atitle=Tropical+cyclones+and+climate+change&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=157-163&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fngeo779&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010NatGe...3..157K&amp;rft.aulast=Knutson&amp;rft.aufirst=T.+R.&amp;rft.au=McBride%2C+J.+L.&amp;rft.au=Chan%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Emanuel%2C+K.&amp;rft.au=Holland%2C+G.&amp;rft.au=Landsea%2C+C.&amp;rft.au=Held%2C+I.&amp;rft.au=Kossin%2C+J.+P.&amp;rft.au=Srivastava%2C+A.+K.&amp;rft.au=Sugi%2C+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-Sobel_Bretherton_2000_JC-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sobel_Bretherton_2000_JC_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Woolnough, S. J.; Slingo, J. M.; Hoskins, B. J. (2000). "The Relationship between Convection and Sea Surface Temperature on Intraseasonal Timescales". <i>Journal of Climate</i>. <b>13</b> (12): 2086–2104. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000JCli...13.2086W">2000JCli...13.2086W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0442%282000%29013%3C2086%3ATRBCAS%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0442(2000)013&lt;2086:TRBCAS&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Climate&amp;rft.atitle=The+Relationship+between+Convection+and+Sea+Surface+Temperature+on+Intraseasonal+Timescales&amp;rft.volume=13&amp;rft.issue=12&amp;rft.pages=2086-2104&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0442%282000%29013%3C2086%3ATRBCAS%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000JCli...13.2086W&amp;rft.aulast=Woolnough&amp;rft.aufirst=S.+J.&amp;rft.au=Slingo%2C+J.+M.&amp;rft.au=Hoskins%2C+B.+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-NASA_Cooling-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NASA_Cooling_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NASA_Cooling_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">D'Asaro, Eric A. &amp; Black, Peter G. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120330131407/http://iop.apl.washington.edu/opd/user/dasaro/DENNIS/HurrConf.pdf">"J8.4 Turbulence in the Ocean Boundary Layer Below Hurricane Dennis"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a>. Archived from the original on March 30, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=J8.4+Turbulence+in+the+Ocean+Boundary+Layer+Below+Hurricane+Dennis&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Washington&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.au=D%27Asaro%2C+Eric+A.&amp;rft.au=Black%2C+Peter+G.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiop.apl.washington.edu%2Fopd%2Fuser%2Fdasaro%2FDENNIS%2FHurrConf.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Unfit url (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Unfit_url" title="Category:CS1 maint: Unfit url">link</a>)</span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-ATL/EPAC_TCOP-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ATL/EPAC_TCOP_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ATL/EPAC_TCOP_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ATL/EPAC_TCOP_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ATL/EPAC_TCOP_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation report">RA IV Hurricane Committee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/tcp/documents/OPERATIONALPLAN2015_en_final.pdf">Regional Association IV Hurricane Operational Plan 2015</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> (Report). World Meteorological Organization<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 8,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Regional+Association+IV+Hurricane+Operational+Plan+2015&amp;rft.pub=World+Meteorological+Organization&amp;rft.au=RA+IV+Hurricane+Committee&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wmo.int%2Fpages%2Fprog%2Fwww%2Ftcp%2Fdocuments%2FOPERATIONALPLAN2015_en_final.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-WPAC_TCOP-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WPAC_TCOP_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WPAC_TCOP_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation report">WMO/ESCP Typhoon Committee (March 13, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/tcp/documents/TCP-23EDITION2015.pdf">Typhoon Committee Operational Manual Meteorological Component 2015</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> (Report No. TCP-23). World Meteorological Organization. pp. 40–41<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 28,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Typhoon+Committee+Operational+Manual+Meteorological+Component+2015&amp;rft.pages=40-41&amp;rft.pub=World+Meteorological+Organization&amp;rft.date=2015-03-13&amp;rft.au=WMO%2FESCP+Typhoon+Committee&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wmo.int%2Fpages%2Fprog%2Fwww%2Ftcp%2Fdocuments%2FTCP-23EDITION2015.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-NIO_TCOP-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIO_TCOP_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIO_TCOP_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIO_TCOP_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation report">WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones (June 8, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/tcp/documents/TCP-21Edition2015_final.pdf">Tropical Cyclone Operational Plan for the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea 2015</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> (Report No. TCP-21). World Meteorological Organization. pp. 11–12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 29,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Operational+Plan+for+the+Bay+of+Bengal+and+the+Arabian+Sea+2015&amp;rft.pages=11-12&amp;rft.pub=World+Meteorological+Organization&amp;rft.date=2015-06-08&amp;rft.au=WMO%2FESCAP+Panel+on+Tropical+Cyclones&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wmo.int%2Fpages%2Fprog%2Fwww%2Ftcp%2Fdocuments%2FTCP-21Edition2015_final.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-SWIO_TCOP-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SWIO_TCOP_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SWIO_TCOP_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SWIO_TCOP_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SWIO_TCOP_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation report">RA I Tropical Cyclone Committee (November 9, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/tcp/documents/TCP-12-WMO-TD-577-rev-2012_121495_en.pdf">Tropical Cyclone Operational Plan for the South-West Indian Ocean: 2012</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> (Report No. TCP-12). World Meteorological Organization. pp. 11–14. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/6XOqxHlAM?url=https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/tcp/documents/TCP-12-WMO-TD-577-rev-2012_121495_en.pdf">Archived</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> from the original on March 29, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 29,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Operational+Plan+for+the+South-West+Indian+Ocean%3A+2012&amp;rft.pages=11-14&amp;rft.pub=World+Meteorological+Organization&amp;rft.date=2012-11-09&amp;rft.au=RA+I+Tropical+Cyclone+Committee&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wmo.int%2Fpages%2Fprog%2Fwww%2Ftcp%2Fdocuments%2FTCP-12-WMO-TD-577-rev-2012_121495_en.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-SPAC_TCOP-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPAC_TCOP_43-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation report">RA V Tropical Cyclone Committee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/tcp/documents/TCP24_RAVOpPlan_Revised_final.pdf">Tropical Cyclone Operational Plan for the South-East Indian Ocean and the Southern Pacific Ocean 2014</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> (Report). World Meteorological Organization.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Operational+Plan+for+the+South-East+Indian+Ocean+and+the+Southern+Pacific+Ocean+2014&amp;rft.pub=World+Meteorological+Organization&amp;rft.au=RA+V+Tropical+Cyclone+Committee&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wmo.int%2Fpages%2Fprog%2Fwww%2Ftcp%2Fdocuments%2FTCP24_RAVOpPlan_Revised_final.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-WMO_RSMC_list-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WMO_RSMC_list_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WMO_RSMC_list_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://severe.worldweather.wmo.int/rsmcs.html">"Regional Specialized Meteorological Center"</a>. <i>Tropical Cyclone Program (TCP)</i>. <a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a>. April 25, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 5,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Program+%28TCP%29&amp;rft.atitle=Regional+Specialized+Meteorological+Center&amp;rft.date=2006-04-25&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsevere.worldweather.wmo.int%2Frsmcs.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409133140/http://metocph.nmci.navy.mil/jtwc/menu/JTWC_mission.html">"Joint Typhoon Warning Center Mission Statement"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Joint_Typhoon_Warning_Center" title="Joint Typhoon Warning Center">Joint Typhoon Warning Center</a>. November 9, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://metocph.nmci.navy.mil/jtwc/menu/JTWC_mission.html">the original</a> on April 9, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Joint+Typhoon+Warning+Center+Mission+Statement.&amp;rft.pub=Joint+Typhoon+Warning+Center&amp;rft.date=2007-11-09&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmetocph.nmci.navy.mil%2Fjtwc%2Fmenu%2FJTWC_mission.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-PAG-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PAG_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040422082657/http://www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/mission.shtml">"Mission Vision"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Atmospheric,_Geophysical_and_Astronomical_Services_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration">Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration</a>. February 24, 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/mission.shtml">the original</a> on April 22, 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Mission+Vision&amp;rft.pub=Philippine+Atmospheric%2C+Geophysical+and+Astronomical+Services+Administration&amp;rft.date=2008-02-24&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pagasa.dost.gov.ph%2Fmission.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CHC-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CHC_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ec.gc.ca/ouragans-hurricanes/">"Canadian Hurricane Center"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Hurricane_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Hurricane Center">Canadian Hurricane Center</a>. February 24, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Canadian+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft.pub=Canadian+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft.date=2008-02-24&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ec.gc.ca%2Fouragans-hurricanes%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Emerson_Marcelino-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Emerson_Marcelino_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Marcelino, Emerson Vieira; Isabela Pena Viana de Oliveira Marcelino; Frederico de Moraes Rudorff (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181933/http://www.dsr.inpe.br/geu/Rel_projetos/Relatorio_IAI_Emerson_Marcelino.pdf">"Cyclone Catarina: Damage and Vulnerability Assessment"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. Santa Catarina Federal University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dsr.inpe.br/geu/Rel_projetos/Relatorio_IAI_Emerson_Marcelino.pdf">the original</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> on March 3, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 24,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Cyclone+Catarina%3A+Damage+and+Vulnerability+Assessment&amp;rft.pub=Santa+Catarina+Federal+University&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.au=Marcelino%2C+Emerson+Vieira%3B+Isabela+Pena+Viana+de+Oliveira+Marcelino%3B+Frederico+de+Moraes+Rudorff&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dsr.inpe.br%2Fgeu%2FRel_projetos%2FRelatorio_IAI_Emerson_Marcelino.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_G1-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G1_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G1_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G1_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G1_49-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_G1_49-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanographic_and_Meteorological_Laboratory" title="Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory</a>, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/5gYGdo8A6?url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: When is hurricane season?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html">the original</a> on May 5, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+When+is+hurricane+season%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FG1.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-NHC_Atl_climatology-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NHC_Atl_climatology_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">McAdie, Colin (May 10, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/climo/">"Tropical Cyclone Climatology"</a>. National Hurricane Center<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 9,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Climatology&amp;rft.pub=National+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft.date=2007-05-10&amp;rft.au=McAdie%2C+Colin&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhc.noaa.gov%2Fclimo%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-TCOP-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TCOP_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation report">RA V Tropical Cyclone Committee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/tcp/documents/TCP24_RAVOpPlan_Revised_final.pdf">Tropical Cyclone Operational Plan for the South-East Indian Ocean and the Southern Pacific Ocean 2014</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> (Report). World Meteorological Organization.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=report&amp;rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Operational+Plan+for+the+South-East+Indian+Ocean+and+the+Southern+Pacific+Ocean+2014&amp;rft.pub=World+Meteorological+Organization&amp;rft.au=RA+V+Tropical+Cyclone+Committee&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wmo.int%2Fpages%2Fprog%2Fwww%2Ftcp%2Fdocuments%2FTCP24_RAVOpPlan_Revised_final.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_E10-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E10_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E10_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E10_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E10_52-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E10_52-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/E10.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: What are the average, most, and least tropical cyclones occurring in each basin?"</a>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+What+are+the+average%2C+most%2C+and+least+tropical+cyclones+occurring+in+each+basin%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration%27s+Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory&amp;rft.au=Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FE10.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">National Climate Prediction Centre (October 14, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/ahead/tc.shtml">"2013/14 Australian Tropical Cyclone season outlook"</a>. Australian Bureau of Meteorology<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 14,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=2013%2F14+Australian+Tropical+Cyclone+season+outlook&amp;rft.pub=Australian+Bureau+of+Meteorology&amp;rft.date=2013-10-14&amp;rft.au=National+Climate+Prediction+Centre&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bom.gov.au%2Fclimate%2Fahead%2Ftc.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2015-16_SO-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2015-16_SO_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">RSMC Nadi — Tropical Cyclone Centre (October 22, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/6cTPF9dra">"2015–16 Tropical Cyclone Season Outlook in the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre Nadi – Tropical Cyclone Centre (RSMC Nadi – TCC) Area of Responsibility (AOR)"</a>. Fiji Meteorological Service. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.met.gov.fj/aifs_prods/Tropical_Cyclone_Guidance_2015_16.pdf">the original</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> on October 22, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 22,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=2015%E2%80%9316+Tropical+Cyclone+Season+Outlook+in+the+Regional+Specialised+Meteorological+Centre+Nadi+%E2%80%93+Tropical+Cyclone+Centre+%28RSMC+Nadi+%E2%80%93+TCC%29+Area+of+Responsibility+%28AOR%29&amp;rft.pub=Fiji+Meteorological+Service&amp;rft.date=2015-10-22&amp;rft.au=RSMC+Nadi+%E2%80%94+Tropical+Cyclone+Centre&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.met.gov.fj%2Faifs_prods%2FTropical_Cyclone_Guidance_2015_16.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ross., Simon (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=JKTDenQB5nAC&amp;pg=PT60&amp;lpg=PT60&amp;dq=formation+of+tropical+cyclones+not+fully+understood"><i>Natural Hazards</i></a> (Illustrated ed.). Nelson Thornes. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-3951-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-3951-6">978-0-7487-3951-6</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Natural+Hazards.&amp;rft.pages=96&amp;rft.edition=Illustrated&amp;rft.pub=Nelson+Thornes&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7487-3951-6&amp;rft.aulast=Ross.&amp;rft.aufirst=Simon&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DJKTDenQB5nAC%26pg%3DPT60%26lpg%3DPT60%26dq%3Dformation%2Bof%2Btropical%2Bcyclones%2Bnot%2Bfully%2Bunderstood&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A15-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A15_56-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090827030639/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A15.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: How do tropical cyclones form?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A15.html">the original</a> on August 27, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 26,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+How+do+tropical+cyclones+form%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FA15.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A16-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A16_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060823084208/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A16.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: Why do tropical cyclones require 80 °F (27 °C) ocean temperatures to form?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A16.html">the original</a> on August 23, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+Why+do+tropical+cyclones+require+80+%C2%B0F+%2827+%C2%B0C%29+ocean+temperatures+to+form%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FA16.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Ron McTaggart-Cowan, Canada Emily L., Jonathan G. Fairman Jr., Thomas J. Galarneau Jr., and David M. Schultz (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00254.1">"Revisiting the 26.5°C Sea Surface Temperature Threshold for Tropical Cyclone Development"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2FBAMS-D-13-00254.2">10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00254.2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Revisiting+the+26.5%C2%B0C+Sea+Surface+Temperature+Threshold+for+Tropical+Cyclone+Development&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2FBAMS-D-13-00254.2&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.ametsoc.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1175%2FBAMS-D-13-00254.1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Uses_authors_parameter" title="Category:CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter">link</a>)</span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Kikuchi, Kazuyoshi; Wang, Bin; Fudeyasu, Hironori (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/MET/Faculty/bwang/bw/paper/186_Kikuchi_et_al_Nargis.pdf">"Genesis of tropical cyclone Nargis revealed by multiple satellite observations"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geophysical Research Letters</i>. <b>36</b> (6): L06811. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009GeoRL..3606811K">2009GeoRL..3606811K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1029%2F2009GL037296">10.1029/2009GL037296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&amp;rft.atitle=Genesis+of+tropical+cyclone+Nargis+revealed+by+multiple+satellite+observations&amp;rft.volume=36&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=L06811&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2009GL037296&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009GeoRL..3606811K&amp;rft.au=Kikuchi%2C+Kazuyoshi&amp;rft.au=Wang%2C+Bin&amp;rft.au=Fudeyasu%2C+Hironori&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soest.hawaii.edu%2FMET%2FFaculty%2Fbwang%2Fbw%2Fpaper%2F186_Kikuchi_et_al_Nargis.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-MMG-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MMG_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Korek, Fritz (November 21, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211112917/http://www.knmi.nl/~koek/glossary.html">"Marine Meteorological Glossary"</a>. Marine Knowledge Centre. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.knmi.nl/~koek/glossary.html#I">the original</a> on December 11, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 6,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Marine+Meteorological+Glossary&amp;rft.pub=Marine+Knowledge+Centre&amp;rft.date=2000-11-21&amp;rft.au=Korek%2C+Fritz&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.knmi.nl%2F~koek%2Fglossary.html%23I&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-MILLER7-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MILLER7_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">DeCaria, Alex (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080507051727/http://snowball.millersville.edu/~adecaria/ESCI344/esci344_lesson05_TC_climatology.html">"Lesson 5 – Tropical Cyclones: Climatology"</a>. <i>ESCI 344 – Tropical Meteorology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Millersville_University_of_Pennsylvania" title="Millersville University of Pennsylvania">Millersville University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://snowball.millersville.edu/~adecaria/ESCI344/esci344_lesson05_TC_climatology.html">the original</a> on May 7, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ESCI+344+%E2%80%93+Tropical+Meteorology&amp;rft.atitle=Lesson+5+%E2%80%93+Tropical+Cyclones%3A+Climatology.&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.au=DeCaria%2C+Alex&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsnowball.millersville.edu%2F~adecaria%2FESCI344%2Fesci344_lesson05_TC_climatology.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-MWR_Avila_1995-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MWR_Avila_1995_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MWR_Avila_1995_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Avila, L. A.; Pasch, R. J. (1995). "Atlantic Tropical Systems of 1993". <i>Monthly Weather Review</i>. <b>123</b> (3): 887–896. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995MWRv..123..887A">1995MWRv..123..887A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281995%29123%3C0887%3AATSO%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(1995)123&lt;0887:ATSO&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Monthly+Weather+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Atlantic+Tropical+Systems+of+1993&amp;rft.volume=123&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=887-896&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%281995%29123%3C0887%3AATSO%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995MWRv..123..887A&amp;rft.aulast=Avila&amp;rft.aufirst=L.+A.&amp;rft.au=Pasch%2C+R.+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A4-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A4_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A4_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060718105909/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A4.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: What is an easterly wave?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A4.html">the original</a> on July 18, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+What+is+an+easterly+wave%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FA4.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Landsea_1993-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Landsea_1993_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Landsea, C. W. (1993). "A Climatology of Intense (or Major) Atlantic Hurricanes". <i>Monthly Weather Review</i>. <b>121</b> (6): 1703–1713. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993MWRv..121.1703L">1993MWRv..121.1703L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281993%29121%3C1703%3AACOIMA%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(1993)121&lt;1703:ACOIMA&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Monthly+Weather+Review&amp;rft.atitle=A+Climatology+of+Intense+%28or+Major%29+Atlantic+Hurricanes&amp;rft.volume=121&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=1703-1713&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%281993%29121%3C1703%3AACOIMA%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993MWRv..121.1703L&amp;rft.aulast=Landsea&amp;rft.aufirst=C.+W.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Dowdy, A. J.; Qi, L.; Jones, D.; Ramsay, H.; Fawcett, R.; Kuleshov, Y. (2012). "Tropical Cyclone Climatology of the South Pacific Ocean and Its Relationship to El Niño–Southern Oscillation". <i>Journal of Climate</i>. <b>25</b> (18): 6108–6122. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012JCli...25.6108D">2012JCli...25.6108D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2FJCLI-D-11-00647.1">10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00647.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Climate&amp;rft.atitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Climatology+of+the+South+Pacific+Ocean+and+Its+Relationship+to+El+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation&amp;rft.volume=25&amp;rft.issue=18&amp;rft.pages=6108-6122&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2FJCLI-D-11-00647.1&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012JCli...25.6108D&amp;rft.aulast=Dowdy&amp;rft.aufirst=A.+J.&amp;rft.au=Qi%2C+L.&amp;rft.au=Jones%2C+D.&amp;rft.au=Ramsay%2C+H.&amp;rft.au=Fawcett%2C+R.&amp;rft.au=Kuleshov%2C+Y.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-BOMmap-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BOMmap_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BOMmap_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Neumann, Charles J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110602182440/http://www.cawcr.gov.au/publications/BMRC_archive/tcguide/ch1/figures_ch1/figure1.9.htm">"Worldwide Tropical Cyclone Tracks 1979–88"</a>. <i>Global Guide to Tropical Cyclone Forecasting</i>. <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Meteorology" title="Bureau of Meteorology">Bureau of Meteorology</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cawcr.gov.au/publications/BMRC_archive/tcguide/ch1/figures_ch1/figure1.9.htm">the original</a> on June 2, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 12,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Global+Guide+to+Tropical+Cyclone+Forecasting&amp;rft.atitle=Worldwide+Tropical+Cyclone+Tracks+1979%E2%80%9388&amp;rft.au=Neumann%2C+Charles+J&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cawcr.gov.au%2Fpublications%2FBMRC_archive%2Ftcguide%2Fch1%2Ffigures_ch1%2Ffigure1.9.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-post-ipcc-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-post-ipcc_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Henderson-Sellers; et al. (October 8, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/IPCC/index.html">"Tropical Cyclones and Global Climate Change: A Post-IPCC Assessment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclones+and+Global+Climate+Change%3A+A+Post-IPCC+Assessment&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.date=2002-10-08&amp;rft.au=Henderson-Sellers&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2FLandsea%2FIPCC%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-GP1201-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GP1201_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/2002/summ0112.htm">"Monthly Global Tropical Cyclone Summary, December 2001"</a>. <i>Gary Padgett</i>. Australian Severe Weather Index<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 6,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Gary+Padgett&amp;rft.atitle=Monthly+Global+Tropical+Cyclone+Summary%2C+December+2001&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faustraliasevereweather.com%2Fcyclones%2F2002%2Fsumm0112.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-Holland_JAS_1983-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Holland_JAS_1983_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Holland, G. J. (1983). "Tropical Cyclone Motion: Environmental Interaction Plus a Beta Effect". <i>Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences</i>. <b>40</b> (2): 328–342. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983JAtS...40..328H">1983JAtS...40..328H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%281983%29040%3C0328%3ATCMEIP%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0469(1983)040&lt;0328:TCMEIP&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Atmospheric+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Motion%3A+Environmental+Interaction+Plus+a+Beta+Effect&amp;rft.volume=40&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=328-342&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0469%281983%29040%3C0328%3ATCMEIP%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983JAtS...40..328H&amp;rft.aulast=Holland&amp;rft.aufirst=G.+J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/weather/wfujiwha.htm">"Fujiwhara effect describes a stormy waltz"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/USA_Today" title="USA Today">USA Today</a></i>. November 9, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 21,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=USA+Today&amp;rft.atitle=Fujiwhara+effect+describes+a+stormy+waltz&amp;rft.date=2007-11-09&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusatoday30.usatoday.com%2Fweather%2Fwfujiwha.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/~chu/chap4/se200.htm">"Section 2: Tropical Cyclone Motion Terminology"</a>. United States Naval Research Laboratory. April 10, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Section+2%3A+Tropical+Cyclone+Motion+Terminology&amp;rft.pub=United+States+Naval+Research+Laboratory&amp;rft.date=2007-04-10&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrlmry.navy.mil%2F~chu%2Fchap4%2Fse200.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CPHC_Ioke-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CPHC_Ioke_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Powell, Jeff; et al. (May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prh.noaa.gov/cphc/summaries/2006.php#ioke">"Hurricane Ioke: 20–27 August 2006"</a>. <i>2006 Tropical Cyclones Central North Pacific</i>. <a href="/wiki/Central_Pacific_Hurricane_Center" title="Central Pacific Hurricane Center">Central Pacific Hurricane Center</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 9,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=2006+Tropical+Cyclones+Central+North+Pacific&amp;rft.atitle=Hurricane+Ioke%3A+20%E2%80%9327+August+2006&amp;rft.date=2007-05&amp;rft.au=Powell%2C+Jeff&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prh.noaa.gov%2Fcphc%2Fsummaries%2F2006.php%23ioke&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090506160420/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/C2.html">"Subject : C2) Doesn't the friction over land kill tropical cyclones?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Hurricane_Center" title="National Hurricane Center">National Hurricane Center</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. February 25, 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/C2.html">the original</a> on May 6, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=National+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft.atitle=Subject+%3A+C2%29+Doesn%27t+the+friction+over+land+kill+tropical+cyclones%3F&amp;rft.date=2008-02-25&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FC2.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/history/wa/pilbara.shtml">"Tropical Cyclones Affecting Pilbara"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Meteorology" title="Bureau of Meteorology">Bureau of Meteorology</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 19,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclones+Affecting+Pilbara&amp;rft.pub=Bureau+of+Meteorology&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bom.gov.au%2Fcyclone%2Fhistory%2Fwa%2Fpilbara.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yuh-Lang Lin, S. Chiao, J. A. Thurman, D. B. Ensley, and J. J. Charney. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ams.confex.com/ams/10Mountain/techprogram/paper_40695.htm">Some Common Ingredients for heavy Orographic Rainfall and their Potential Application for Prediction.</a>. Retrieved April 26, 2007.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-nhc-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nhc_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">National Hurricane Center (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140216194107/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1998mitch.html">"Hurricane Mitch Tropical Cyclone Report"</a>. Archived from the original on February 16, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 20,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Hurricane+Mitch+Tropical+Cyclone+Report&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.au=National+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhc.noaa.gov%2F1998mitch.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Unfit url (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Unfit_url" title="Category:CS1 maint: Unfit url">link</a>)</span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Shays_et_al._1989-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shays_et_al._1989_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Shay, L. K.; Elsberry, R. L.; Black, P. G. (1989). "Vertical Structure of the Ocean Current Response to a Hurricane". <i>Journal of Physical Oceanography</i>. <b>19</b> (5): 649–669. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989JPO....19..649S">1989JPO....19..649S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0485%281989%29019%3C0649%3AVSOTOC%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0485(1989)019&lt;0649:VSOTOC&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Physical+Oceanography&amp;rft.atitle=Vertical+Structure+of+the+Ocean+Current+Response+to+a+Hurricane&amp;rft.volume=19&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=649-669&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0485%281989%29019%3C0649%3AVSOTOC%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989JPO....19..649S&amp;rft.aulast=Shay&amp;rft.aufirst=L.+K.&amp;rft.au=Elsberry%2C+R.+L.&amp;rft.au=Black%2C+P.+G.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Edwards_genesis-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edwards_genesis_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Edwards, Jonathan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070221063429/http://www.hurricanezone.net/articles/tropical-cyclone-formation.html">"Tropical Cyclone Formation"</a>. HurricaneZone.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hurricanezone.net/articles/tropical-cyclone-formation.html">the original</a> on February 21, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 30,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Formation&amp;rft.pub=HurricaneZone.net&amp;rft.au=Edwards%2C+Jonathan&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hurricanezone.net%2Farticles%2Ftropical-cyclone-formation.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-EAM-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EAM_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EAM_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Chang, Chih-Pei (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=N8QYOdqGdgkC&amp;pg=PA484&amp;lpg=PA484"><i>East Asian Monsoon</i></a>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-238-769-2" title="Special:BookSources/981-238-769-2">981-238-769-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/61353183">61353183</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=East+Asian+Monsoon&amp;rft.pub=World+Scientific&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61353183&amp;rft.isbn=981-238-769-2&amp;rft.au=Chang%2C+Chih-Pei&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DN8QYOdqGdgkC%26pg%3DPA484%26lpg%3DPA484&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-JWTC_intensity-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JWTC_intensity_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Research_Laboratory" title="United States Naval Research Laboratory">United States Naval Research Laboratory</a> (September 23, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/~chu/chap6/se300.htm">"Tropical Cyclone Intensity Terminology"</a>. <i>Tropical Cyclone Forecasters' Reference Guide</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 30,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Forecasters%27+Reference+Guide&amp;rft.atitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Intensity+Terminology&amp;rft.date=1999-09-23&amp;rft.au=United+States+Naval+Research+Laboratory&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrlmry.navy.mil%2F~chu%2Fchap6%2Fse300.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-IrisTCR-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IrisTCR_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Rappaport, Edward N. (November 2, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119134921/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1995iris.html">"Preliminary Report: Hurricane Iris: 22–4 August September 1995"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Hurricane_Center" title="National Hurricane Center">National Hurricane Center</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1995iris.html">the original</a> on January 19, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 29,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Preliminary+Report%3A+Hurricane+Iris%3A+22%E2%80%934+August+September+1995&amp;rft.pub=National+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft.date=2000-11-02&amp;rft.au=Rappaport%2C+Edward+N.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhc.noaa.gov%2F1995iris.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Hamilton, Jon (September 5, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=94332532">"African Dust Linked To Hurricane Strength"</a>. <i>All Things Considered</i>. NPR<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=All+Things+Considered&amp;rft.atitle=African+Dust+Linked+To+Hurricane+Strength&amp;rft.date=2008-09-05&amp;rft.au=Hamilton%2C+Jon&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D94332532&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060615055430/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hrd_sub/sfury.html">"Project Stormfury"</a>. <i>Hurricane Research Division</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. February 7, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hrd_sub/sfury.html">the original</a> on June 15, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 7,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft.atitle=Project+Stormfury&amp;rft.date=2009-02-07&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Fhrd_sub%2Fsfury.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Willoughby, H. E.; Jorgensen, D. P.; Black, R. A.; Rosenthal, S. L. (1985). "Project STORMFURY: A Scientific Chronicle 1962–1983". <i>Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</i>. <b>66</b> (5): 505–514. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985BAMS...66..505W">1985BAMS...66..505W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0477%281985%29066%3C0505%3APSASC%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0477(1985)066&lt;0505:PSASC&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Meteorological+Society&amp;rft.atitle=Project+STORMFURY%3A+A+Scientific+Chronicle+1962%E2%80%931983&amp;rft.volume=66&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=505-514&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0477%281985%29066%3C0505%3APSASC%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985BAMS...66..505W&amp;rft.aulast=Willoughby&amp;rft.aufirst=H.+E.&amp;rft.au=Jorgensen%2C+D.+P.&amp;rft.au=Black%2C+R.+A.&amp;rft.au=Rosenthal%2C+S.+L.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Whipple_151-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whipple_151_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Whipple, Addison (1982). <i>Storm</i>. <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Virginia" title="Alexandria, Virginia">Alexandria, VA</a>: <a href="/wiki/Time_Life" title="Time Life">Time Life Books</a>. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8094-4312-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8094-4312-0">0-8094-4312-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Storm&amp;rft.place=Alexandria%2C+VA&amp;rft.pages=151&amp;rft.pub=Time+Life+Books&amp;rft.date=1982&amp;rft.isbn=0-8094-4312-0&amp;rft.au=Whipple%2C+Addison&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_C5a-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5a_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/C5a.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: Why don't we try to destroy tropical cyclones by seeding them with silver torches iodide?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+Why+don%27t+we+try+to+destroy+tropical+cyclones+by+seeding+them+with+silver+torches+iodide%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FC5a.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_C5e-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5e_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5e_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/C5e.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: Why don't we try to destroy tropical cyclones by cooling the surface waters with icebergs or deep ocean water?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+Why+don%27t+we+try+to+destroy+tropical+cyclones+by+cooling+the+surface+waters+with+icebergs+or+deep+ocean+water%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FC5e.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_C5b-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5b_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/C5b.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: Why don't we try to destroy tropical cyclones by placing a substance on the ocean surface?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+Why+don%27t+we+try+to+destroy+tropical+cyclones+by+placing+a+substance+on+the+ocean+surface%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FC5b.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_C5c-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5c_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/C5c.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: Why don't we try to destroy tropical cyclones by nuking them?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+Why+don%27t+we+try+to+destroy+tropical+cyclones+by+nuking+them%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FC5c.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Sudden_Sea-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sudden_Sea_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Scotti, R. A. (2003). <i>Sudden Sea: The Great Hurricane of 1938</i> (1st ed.). Little, Brown, and Company. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-73911-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-316-73911-1">0-316-73911-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/51861977">51861977</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Sudden+Sea%3A+The+Great+Hurricane+of+1938&amp;rft.pages=47&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown%2C+and+Company&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51861977&amp;rft.isbn=0-316-73911-1&amp;rft.au=Scotti%2C+R.+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_C5f-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_C5f_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/C5i.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: Why do not we try to destroy tropical cyclones by (fill in the blank)?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+Why+do+not+we+try+to+destroy+tropical+cyclones+by+%28fill+in+the+blank%29%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FC5i.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18cva-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18cva_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Roth, David &amp; Cobb, Hugh (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/roth/va18hur.htm">"Eighteenth Century Virginia Hurricanes"</a>. NOAA<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 24,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Eighteenth+Century+Virginia+Hurricanes&amp;rft.pub=NOAA&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.au=Roth%2C+David&amp;rft.au=Cobb%2C+Hugh&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov%2Fresearch%2Froth%2Fva18hur.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005_97-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shultz_Epid_Reviews_2005_97-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Shultz, J. M.; Russell, J.; Espinel, Z. (2005). "Epidemiology of Tropical Cyclones: The Dynamics of Disaster, Disease, and Development". <i>Epidemiologic Reviews</i>. <b>27</b>: 21–35. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Fepirev%2Fmxi011">10.1093/epirev/mxi011</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15958424">15958424</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Epidemiologic+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Epidemiology+of+Tropical+Cyclones%3A+The+Dynamics+of+Disaster%2C+Disease%2C+and+Development&amp;rft.volume=27&amp;rft.pages=21-35&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fepirev%2Fmxi011&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15958424&amp;rft.aulast=Shultz&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+M.&amp;rft.au=Russell%2C+J.&amp;rft.au=Espinel%2C+Z.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_L6-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_L6_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090914103006/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/L6.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/L6.html">the original</a> on September 14, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+Are+TC+tornadoes+weaker+than+midlatitude+tornadoes%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FL6.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Power_failures-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Power_failures_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Staff Writer (August 30, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oe.netl.doe.gov/docs/katrina/katrina_083005_1600.pdf">"Hurricane Katrina Situation Report #11"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE) <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 24,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Hurricane+Katrina+Situation+Report+%2311&amp;rft.date=2005-08-30&amp;rft.au=Staff+Writer&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oe.netl.doe.gov%2Fdocs%2Fkatrina%2Fkatrina_083005_1600.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Burroughs, William James (2007). <i>Climate change : a multidisciplinary approach</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87015-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87015-3">978-0-521-87015-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Climate+change+%3A+a+multidisciplinary+approach&amp;rft.place=Cambridge&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-87015-3&amp;rft.aulast=Burroughs&amp;rft.aufirst=William+James&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2005_EPac_outlook-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2005_EPac_outlook_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/Epac_hurr/Epac_hurricane.html">2005 Tropical Eastern North Pacific Hurricane Outlook.</a>. Retrieved May 2, 2006.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-JetStream_introduction-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JetStream_introduction_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a> (October 19, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/tropics/tc.htm">"Tropical Cyclone Introduction"</a>. <i>JetStream — An Online School for Weather</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_%26_Atmospheric_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="National Oceanic &amp; Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic &amp; Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 7,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=JetStream+%E2%80%94+An+Online+School+for+Weather&amp;rft.atitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Introduction&amp;rft.date=2005-10-19&amp;rft.au=National+Weather+Service&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Fjetstream%2Ftropics%2Ftc.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Emanuel, Kerry (July 2001). "Contribution of tropical cyclones to meridional heat transport by the oceans". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Geophysical_Research" title="Journal of Geophysical Research">Journal of Geophysical Research</a></i>. <b>106</b> (D14): 14771–14781. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JGR...10614771E">2001JGR...10614771E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1029%2F2000JD900641">10.1029/2000JD900641</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&amp;rft.atitle=Contribution+of+tropical+cyclones+to+meridional+heat+transport+by+the+oceans&amp;rft.volume=106&amp;rft.issue=D14&amp;rft.pages=14771-14781&amp;rft.date=2001-07&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2000JD900641&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001JGR...10614771E&amp;rft.aulast=Emanuel&amp;rft.aufirst=Kerry&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Christopherson-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Christopherson_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Christopherson, Robert W. (1992). <i>Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography</i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: Macmillan Publishing Company. pp. 222–224. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-322443-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-322443-6">0-02-322443-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Geosystems%3A+An+Introduction+to+Physical+Geography&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pages=222-224&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishing+Company&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft.isbn=0-02-322443-6&amp;rft.au=Christopherson%2C+Robert+W.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Doyle, Thomas (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1306/pdf/c1306_ch6_f.pdf">"Wind damage and Salinity Effects of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita on Coastal Baldcypress Forests of Louisiana"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 13,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Wind+damage+and+Salinity+Effects+of+Hurricanes+Katrina+and+Rita+on+Coastal+Baldcypress+Forests+of+Louisiana&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.aulast=Doyle&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fcirc%2F1306%2Fpdf%2Fc1306_ch6_f.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-NHC_forecast_verifications_models-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NHC_forecast_verifications_models_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/National_Hurricane_Center" title="National Hurricane Center">National Hurricane Center</a> (May 22, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/verification/verify6.shtml?#FIG1">"Annual average model track errors for Atlantic basin tropical cyclones for the period 1994–2005, for a homogeneous selection of "early" models"</a>. <i>National Hurricane Center Forecast Verification</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 30,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=National+Hurricane+Center+Forecast+Verification&amp;rft.atitle=Annual+average+model+track+errors+for+Atlantic+basin+tropical+cyclones+for+the+period+1994%E2%80%932005%2C+for+a+homogeneous+selection+of+%22early%22+models&amp;rft.date=2006-05-22&amp;rft.au=National+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhc.noaa.gov%2Fverification%2Fverify6.shtml%3F%23FIG1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-NWS_Storm_Damage_Centre-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NWS_Storm_Damage_Centre_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141105161814/https://stormdamagecenter.org/tropical-storms.php">"Storm Damage Center"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stormdamagecenter.org/tropical-storms.php">the original</a> on November 5, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 6,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Storm+Damage+Center&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstormdamagecenter.org%2Ftropical-storms.php&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_E1-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E1_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_E1_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101206200600/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/E1.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: Which is the most intense tropical cyclone on record?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/E1.html">the original</a> on December 6, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+Which+is+the+most+intense+tropical+cyclone+on+record%3F&amp;rft.pub=NOAA&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FE1.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Greek_typhoon-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Greek_typhoon_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/typhoon">"Typhoon"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a></i> (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary.com" title="Dictionary.com">Dictionary.com</a>. 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 14,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Typhoon&amp;rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&amp;rft.edition=4th&amp;rft.pub=Dictionary.com&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Ftyphoon&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crid.or.cr/crid/ESP/sistregio/vocabulario/Listado%20Alfab%E9tico%20de%20T%E9rminos%20Eng..pdf">"Disaster Controlled Vocabulary (VDC)"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Centro Regional de Información sobre Desastres</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 24,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Centro+Regional+de+Informaci%C3%B3n+sobre+Desastres&amp;rft.atitle=Disaster+Controlled+Vocabulary+%28VDC%29&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crid.or.cr%2Fcrid%2FESP%2Fsistregio%2Fvocabulario%2FListado%2520Alfab%25E9tico%2520de%2520T%25E9rminos%2520Eng..pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link since February 2017">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_B4-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_B4_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/B4.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: What is the origin of the word "hurricane"?"</a>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+What+is+the+origin+of+the+word+%22hurricane%22%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FB4.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-mesoamermyth-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mesoamermyth_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mesoamermyth_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Read, Kay Almere; Jason González (2000). <i>Handbook of Mesoamerican Mythology</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. 200. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85109-340-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85109-340-0">1-85109-340-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/43879188">43879188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Mesoamerican+Mythology&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pages=200&amp;rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43879188&amp;rft.isbn=1-85109-340-0&amp;rft.au=Read%2C+Kay+Almere&amp;rft.au=Jason+Gonz%C3%A1lez&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Whats_in_a_name?-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whats_in_a_name?_127-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Smith, Ray (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metsoc.org.nz/system/files/journals/10/1/1990_101_24-26_rsmith.pdf">"What's in a Name?"</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Weather and Climate</i>. The Meteorological Society of New Zealand. <b>10</b> (1): 24–26. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129194207/http://www.metsoc.org.nz/system/files/journals/10/1/1990_101_24-26_rsmith.pdf">Archived</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> from the original on November 29, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Weather+and+Climate&amp;rft.atitle=What%27s+in+a+Name%3F&amp;rft.volume=10&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=24-26&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.au=Smith%2C+Ray&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metsoc.org.nz%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fjournals%2F10%2F1%2F1990_101_24-26_rsmith.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Mahina-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mahina_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mahina_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mahina_128-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mahina_128-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mahina_128-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mahina_128-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Dorst, Neal M (October 23, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="ftp://ftp.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/pub/dorst/Mahina.pptx">"They Called the Wind Mahina: The History of Naming Cyclones"</a>. <i>Hurricane Research Division, Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory</i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. p. Slides 8–72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Hurricane+Research+Division%2C+Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory&amp;rft.atitle=They+Called+the+Wind+Mahina%3A+The+History+of+Naming+Cyclones&amp;rft.pages=Slides+8-72&amp;rft.date=2012-10-23&amp;rft.au=Dorst%2C+Neal+M&amp;rft_id=ftp%3A%2F%2Fftp.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Fpub%2Fdorst%2FMahina.pptx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-faqe9-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-faqe9_129-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-faqe9_129-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Landsea, Chris (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/E9.html">"Which tropical cyclones have caused the most deaths and most damage?"</a>. Hurricane Research Division<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 23,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Which+tropical+cyclones+have+caused+the+most+deaths+and+most+damage%3F&amp;rft.pub=Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.au=Landsea%2C+Chris&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FE9.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-1970death-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1970death_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Lawson, A. (November 2, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/503139.stm">"South Asia: A history of destruction"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 23,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=South+Asia%3A+A+history+of+destruction&amp;rft.date=1999-11-02&amp;rft.au=Lawson%2C+A.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Fsouth_asia%2F503139.stm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Deadliest_cyclone-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Deadliest_cyclone_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Frank, N. L.; Husain, S. A. (1971). "The Deadliest Tropical Cyclone in History". <i>Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</i>. <b>52</b> (6): 438–445. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971BAMS...52..438F">1971BAMS...52..438F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0477%281971%29052%3C0438%3ATDTCIH%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0477(1971)052&lt;0438:TDTCIH&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Meteorological+Society&amp;rft.atitle=The+Deadliest+Tropical+Cyclone+in+History&amp;rft.volume=52&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=438-445&amp;rft.date=1971&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0477%281971%29052%3C0438%3ATDTCIH%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971BAMS...52..438F&amp;rft.aulast=Frank&amp;rft.aufirst=N.+L.&amp;rft.au=Husain%2C+S.+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson-Berry, Linda J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/iwtc/AndersonBerry5-1.html">Fifth International Workshop on Tropycal Cyclones: Topic 5.1: Societal Impacts of Tropical Cyclones.</a>. Retrieved February 26, 2008.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-NHCPastDeadly-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NHCPastDeadly_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/National_Hurricane_Center" title="National Hurricane Center">National Hurricane Center</a> (April 22, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastdeadlyapp1.shtml?">"The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 31,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Deadliest+Atlantic+Tropical+Cyclones%2C+1492%E2%80%931996&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.date=1997-04-22&amp;rft.au=National+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhc.noaa.gov%2Fpastdeadlyapp1.shtml%3F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-MWR_Paul_1982-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MWR_Paul_1982_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Gunther, E. B.; Cross, R. L.; Wagoner, R. A. (1983). "Eastern North Pacific Tropical Cyclones of 1982". <i>Monthly Weather Review</i>. <b>111</b> (5): 1080–1102. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983MWRv..111.1080G">1983MWRv..111.1080G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281983%29111%3C1080%3AENPTCO%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(1983)111&lt;1080:ENPTCO&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1520-0493">1520-0493</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Monthly+Weather+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Eastern+North+Pacific+Tropical+Cyclones+of+1982&amp;rft.volume=111&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=1080-1102&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft.issn=1520-0493&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%281983%29111%3C1080%3AENPTCO%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983MWRv..111.1080G&amp;rft.aulast=Gunther&amp;rft.aufirst=E.+B.&amp;rft.au=Cross%2C+R.+L.&amp;rft.au=Wagoner%2C+R.+A.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/National_Hurricane_Center" title="National Hurricane Center">National Hurricane Center</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/HAW2/english/history.shtml#galveston">Galveston Hurricane 1900.</a>. Retrieved February 24, 2008.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-InikiTCR-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-InikiTCR_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/Central_Pacific_Hurricane_Center" title="Central Pacific Hurricane Center">Central Pacific Hurricane Center</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prh.noaa.gov/cphc/summaries/1992.php#Iniki">"Hurricane Iniki Natural Disaster Survey Report"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 31,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Hurricane+Iniki+Natural+Disaster+Survey+Report&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Central+Pacific+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prh.noaa.gov%2Fcphc%2Fsummaries%2F1992.php%23Iniki&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-PaulineTCR-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PaulineTCR_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Lawrence, Miles B. (November 7, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050925163243/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1997pauline.html">"Preliminary Report: Hurricane Pauline: 5–10 October 1997"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Hurricane_Center" title="National Hurricane Center">National Hurricane Center</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1997pauline.html">the original</a> on September 25, 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 31,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Preliminary+Report%3A+Hurricane+Pauline%3A+5%E2%80%9310+October+1997&amp;rft.pub=National+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft.date=1997-11-07&amp;rft.aulast=Lawrence&amp;rft.aufirst=Miles+B.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhc.noaa.gov%2F1997pauline.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-KennaTCR-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KennaTCR_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/James_Franklin_(meteorologist)" title="James Franklin (meteorologist)">Franklin, James L</a>. (December 26, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140716085913/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/2002kenna.shtml">"Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Kenna: 22–26 October 2002"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Hurricane_Center" title="National Hurricane Center">National Hurricane Center</a>. Archived from the original on July 16, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 31,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Report%3A+Hurricane+Kenna%3A+22%E2%80%9326+October+2002&amp;rft.pub=National+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft.date=2002-12-26&amp;rft.au=Franklin%2C+James+L.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhc.noaa.gov%2F2002kenna.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Unfit url (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Unfit_url" title="Category:CS1 maint: Unfit url">link</a>)</span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-jtwc-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jtwc_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Dunnavan, G. M.; Diercks, J. W. (1980). "An Analysis of Super Typhoon Tip (October 1979)". <i>Monthly Weather Review</i>. <b>108</b> (11): 1915–1923. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980MWRv..108.1915D">1980MWRv..108.1915D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281980%29108%3C1915%3AAAOSTT%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(1980)108&lt;1915:AAOSTT&gt;2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Monthly+Weather+Review&amp;rft.atitle=An+Analysis+of+Super+Typhoon+Tip+%28October+1979%29&amp;rft.volume=108&amp;rft.issue=11&amp;rft.pages=1915-1923&amp;rft.date=1980&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%281980%29108%3C1915%3AAAOSTT%3E2.0.CO%3B2&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980MWRv..108.1915D&amp;rft.aulast=Dunnavan&amp;rft.aufirst=G.+M.&amp;rft.au=Diercks%2C+J.+W.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Pasch, Richard (October 23, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/text/refresh/MIATCDEP5+shtml/230834.shtml?">"Hurricane Patricia Discussion Number 14"</a>. National Hurricane Center. <q>Data from three center fixes by the Hurricane Hunters indicate that the intensity, based on a blend of 700 mb-flight level and SFMR-observed surface winds, is near 175 kt. This makes Patricia the strongest hurricane on record in the National Hurricane Center's area of responsibility (AOR) which includes the Atlantic and the eastern North Pacific basins.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Hurricane+Patricia+Discussion+Number++14&amp;rft.pub=National+Hurricane+Center&amp;rft.date=2015-10-23&amp;rft.aulast=Pasch&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhc.noaa.gov%2Ftext%2Frefresh%2FMIATCDEP5%2Bshtml%2F230834.shtml%3F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-wmo.int-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wmo.int_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/infonotes/info_58_en.html">World Record Wind Gust: 408 km/h</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130120065504/http://www.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/infonotes/info_58_en.html">Archived</a> January 20, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.. World Meteorological Organization.</span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-IWTC5-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IWTC5_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Lander, Mark A.; et al. (August 3, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/iwtc/Lander4-1.html">"Fifth International Workshop on Tropical Cyclones"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 6,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Fifth+International+Workshop+on+Tropical+Cyclones&amp;rft.pub=World+Meteorological+Organization&amp;rft.date=2003-08-03&amp;rft.au=Lander%2C+Mark+A.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Fiwtc%2FLander4-1.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070209121005/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A7.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: What is an extra-tropical cyclone?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A7.html">the original</a> on February 9, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+What+is+an+extra-tropical+cyclone%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FA7.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-L14-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-L14_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://profhorn.meteor.wisc.edu/wxwise/satmet/lesson14/Satextracyclone.html">"Lesson 14: Background: Synoptic Scale"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>. February 25, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 6,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Lesson+14%3A+Background%3A+Synoptic+Scale&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison&amp;rft.date=2008-02-25&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprofhorn.meteor.wisc.edu%2Fwxwise%2Fsatmet%2Flesson14%2FSatextracyclone.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-337/winter.html">"An Overview of Coastal Land Loss: With Emphasis on the Southeastern United States"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a>. 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 6,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=An+Overview+of+Coastal+Land+Loss%3A+With+Emphasis+on+the+Southeastern+United+States.&amp;rft.pub=United+States+Geological+Survey&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fof%2F2003%2Fof03-337%2Fwinter.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_A6-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_A6_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111011042947/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A6.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: What is a sub-tropical cyclone?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A6.html">the original</a> on October 11, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+What+is+a+sub-tropical+cyclone%3F&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.au=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FA6.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-PadgetDecember2000-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PadgetDecember2000_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Padgett, Gary (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/2001/summ0012.htm">"Monthly Global Tropical Cyclone Summary for December 2000"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 31,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Monthly+Global+Tropical+Cyclone+Summary+for+December+2000&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.au=Padgett%2C+Gary&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faustraliasevereweather.com%2Fcyclones%2F2001%2Fsumm0012.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_J4-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_J4_183-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_J4_183-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_J4_183-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Dorst, Neal; Hurricane Research Division (June 1, 2013). "Subject: J4) What fictional books, plays, poems, and movies have been written involving tropical cyclones?". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/J4.html"><i>Tropical Cyclone Frequently Asked Questions:</i></a>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Subject%3A+J4%29+What+fictional+books%2C+plays%2C+poems%2C+and+movies+have+been+written+involving+tropical+cyclones%3F&amp;rft.btitle=Tropical+Cyclone+Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A&amp;rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&amp;rft.date=2013-06-01&amp;rft.au=Dorst%2C+Neal&amp;rft.au=Hurricane+Research+Division&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FJ4.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-1991_Perfect_Storm-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1991_Perfect_Storm_184-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">McCown, Sean (December 13, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/satellite/satelliteseye/hurricanes/unnamed91/unnamed91.html">"Unnamed Hurricane 1991"</a>. <i>Satellite Events Art Gallery: Hurricanes</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Climatic_Data_Center" title="National Climatic Data Center">National Climatic Data Center</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 4,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Satellite+Events+Art+Gallery%3A+Hurricanes&amp;rft.atitle=Unnamed+Hurricane+1991&amp;rft.date=2004-12-13&amp;rft.au=McCown%2C+Sean&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdc.noaa.gov%2Foa%2Fsatellite%2Fsatelliteseye%2Fhurricanes%2Funnamed91%2Funnamed91.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-simpsons-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-simpsons_185-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/5gZwJxocj?url=http://tv.yahoo.com/the-simpsons/show/hurricane-neddy/episode/618">"Hurricane Neddy – Episode Overview"</a>. Yahoo! TV. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tv.yahoo.com/the-simpsons/show/hurricane-neddy/episode/618">the original</a> on May 6, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Hurricane+Neddy+%E2%80%93+Episode+Overview&amp;rft.pub=Yahoo%21+TV&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftv.yahoo.com%2Fthe-simpsons%2Fshow%2Fhurricane-neddy%2Fepisode%2F618&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-familyguy-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-familyguy_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/5gZwSoAsA?url=http://www.starpulse.com/movie/Family_Guy:_One_if_By_Clam,_Two_if_By_Sea/V299545/0/2/">"Family Guy: One if by Clam, Two if by Sea – Summary"</a>. starpulse.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.starpulse.com/movie/Family_Guy%3A_One_if_By_Clam%2C_Two_if_By_Sea/V299545/0/2/">the original</a> on May 6, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Family+Guy%3A+One+if+by+Clam%2C+Two+if+by+Sea+%E2%80%93+Summary&amp;rft.pub=starpulse.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.starpulse.com%2Fmovie%2FFamily_Guy%253A_One_if_By_Clam%252C_Two_if_By_Sea%2FV299545%2F0%2F2%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-dawsons-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dawsons_187-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/5gZw0SALq?url=http://tv.yahoo.com/dawsons-creek/show/episode/34568/recap%26vers%3Dlong%26start%3D1">"Dawson's Creek – Hurricane"</a>. Yahoo! TV. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tv.yahoo.com/dawsons-creek/show/episode/34568/recap%26vers%3Dlong%26start%3D1">the original</a> on May 6, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Dawson%27s+Creek+%E2%80%93+Hurricane&amp;rft.pub=Yahoo%21+TV&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftv.yahoo.com%2Fdawsons-creek%2Fshow%2Fepisode%2F34568%2Frecap%2526vers%253Dlong%2526start%253D1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-seinfeld-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-seinfeld_188-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/5gZwWynCE?url=http://www.seinfeldscripts.com/TheChecks.html">"The Checks (Seinfeld Episode Script)"</a>. Seinfeldscripts.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seinfeldscripts.com/TheChecks.html">the original</a> on May 6, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Checks+%28Seinfeld+Episode+Script%29&amp;rft.pub=Seinfeldscripts.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seinfeldscripts.com%2FTheChecks.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CSIMiami-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CSIMiami_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/5gZwe9J9x?url=http://www.tvguide.com/detail/tv-show.aspx?episodeid=3962744&amp;tvobjectid=100101&amp;more=ucepisodelist">"CSI: Miami Episodes – Episode Detail: Hurricane Anthony"</a>. <i>TV Guide</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvguide.com/detail/tv-show.aspx?episodeid%3D3962744%26tvobjectid%3D100101%26more%3Ducepisodelist">the original</a> on May 6, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=TV+Guide&amp;rft.atitle=CSI%3A+Miami+Episodes+%E2%80%93+Episode+Detail%3A+Hurricane+Anthony&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tvguide.com%2Fdetail%2Ftv-show.aspx%3Fepisodeid%253D3962744%2526tvobjectid%253D100101%2526more%253Ducepisodelist&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/5gZwqK4ej?url=http://www.tribute.ca/movies/The%20Day%20After%20Tomorrow/6798">"The Day After Tomorrow Movie Synopsis"</a>. Tribute.ca. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tribute.ca/movies/The%20Day%20After%20Tomorrow/6798">the original</a> on May 6, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Day+After+Tomorrow+Movie+Synopsis&amp;rft.pub=Tribute.ca&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tribute.ca%2Fmovies%2FThe%2520Day%2520After%2520Tomorrow%2F6798&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/281154/The-Day-After-Tomorrow/trailers">"The Day After Tomorrow (2004)"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=The+Day+After+Tomorrow+%282004%29&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmovies.nytimes.com%2Fmovie%2F281154%2FThe-Day-After-Tomorrow%2Ftrailers&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATropical+cyclone" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
</ol></div>
</div><h2 class="in-block section-heading" onclick="javascript:mfTempOpenSection(18)"><div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element indicator"></div><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2><div class="mf-section-18 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-18">
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000"><tr><td class="mbox-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" width="40" height="40" class="noviewer" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 40px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="40" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="noviewer"> </span></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/tropical_cyclone" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</td>
</tr></table><table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000"><tr><td class="mbox-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="noviewer"> </span></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tropical_cyclones" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tropical cyclones">Tropical cyclones</a></b></i>.</td>
</tr></table><table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000"><tr><td class="mbox-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="38" height="40" class="noviewer" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 38px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="38" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="noviewer"> </span></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article:
<div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Hurricane" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The Hurricane">The Hurricane</a></b></div>
</td>
</tr></table><p><b>Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers</b></p>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/">US National Hurricane Center</a> – North Atlantic, Eastern Pacific</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110923144245/http://www.prh.noaa.gov/hnl/cphc/">Central Pacific Hurricane Center</a> – Central Pacific</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jma.go.jp/en/typh/">Japan Meteorological Agency</a> – NW Pacific</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/index.php?lang=en">India Meteorological Department</a> – <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/">Météo-France – La Reunion</a> – South Indian Ocean from 30°E to 90°E</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.met.gov.fj/">Fiji Meteorological Service</a> – South Pacific west of 160°E, north of 25° S</li>
</ul><p><b>Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers</b></p>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://meteo.bmkg.go.id/siklon">Indonesian Meteorological Department</a> – South Indian Ocean from 90°E to 125°E, north of 10°S</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080723222148/http://www.bom.gov.au/weather/cyclone/index.shtml">Australian Bureau of Meteorology (TCWC's Perth, Darwin &amp; Brisbane)</a>. – South Indian Ocean &amp; South Pacific Ocean from 90°E to 160°E, south of 10°S</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://metservice.com/">Meteorological Service of New Zealand Limited</a> – South Pacific west of 160°E, south of 25°S</li>
</ul><p><b>Reference</b></p>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101110075520/http://a-z-dictionaries.com/Hurricane_glossary.html">Hurricane Glossary of Terms</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924063411/http://www.pakweather.com/2015/03/deadliest-world-tropical-cyclones.html">List of World's Deadliest Tropical Cyclones</a></li>
<li>CDC - NIOSH <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/emres/flood.html">Storm/Flood and Hurricane/Typhoon Response</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions">U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Events</a></li>
</ul><p><br></p>







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